Corps History - Part 16
The Corps and the Second World War (1939-45)

The Beginning and Overview

On 1 September 1939 German troops crossed the Polish border. In response the British, who had a formal treaty with Poland, mobilized their armed services and sent an ultimatum to the German Government. No reply was received. At 11.15 am on 3 September 1939 Britain, together with France, declared war on Germany. In a matter of hours afterwards the British Dominions (Australia, Canada, South Africa and New Zealand) followed suit.

On 10 June 1940 when it was clear that France had fallen the Italians declared war on the Allies. Japan entered the war on the side of Axis forces (Germany and Italy) on 7 December 1941.

During the war the British Army and its engineers were deployed to many theatres:

• France and Belgium (1939-40)
• Norway (1940)
• Middle East (1940-43)
• Mediterranean (1940-45)
• North West Africa (1942-43)
• Sicily and Italy (1943-1945)
• Hong Kong, Malaya and Singapore (1941-42)
• India (1939-45)
• Burma (1942-45)
• North West Europe (1944-45)

The challenges that faced the engineers were determined by the terrain of the country and mode of operations in each theatre. The open and largely featureless spaces of the Western Desert, ideal for mobile armoured warfare, placed the emphasis on the laying and clearing of minefields. In the mountainous terrain of Italy and the jungles of Burma the emphasis was on bridging, made easier by the introduction of the Bailey bridge (1942), and the maintenance of road and rail links. The breaching of the German defences in Normandy (Operation Overlord - 1944) saw the emphasis shift to the use of assault (armoured) engineers, Hobart's Funnies. The need to dispose of unexploded bombs led to the formation of the Bomb Disposal Service. The introduction of airborne forces brought the need to provide engineering support to them. The support of the RAF saw the engineers constructing and repairing airfields. In the lines of communication areas the engineers were actively engaged in constructing bases, maintaining water and electricity supplies, operating and repairing ports and railways, providing a mapping and postal service, and organising the movement of troops and supplies.

Throughout the war the Corps worked very closely and successfully with the engineers of the Allies, the Dominions and Colonies.

Strength of the Royal Engineers - 1939-1946

The Corps expanded as it had done during the First World War (1914-18). Its establishment increased by 37% from 89,301 in September 1939 to 280,632 in May 1945, the time of VE (Victory Europe) day.

The 1939-1945 Royal Engineers roll records the names of 10,839 men who were either killed or died on service.

The Home Front 1939-1943
United Kingdom and Northern Ireland

RE Works in the prelude to war - 1938-1939

In the 18 months before the outbreak of war, Royal Engineer Works staff were engaged in a heavy national defence construction programme and other war related projects, which included the construction of:

• Anti-aircraft gun sites (complete with ammunition stores, billets, cookhouses etc) widely scattered throughout the country.
• A vehicle depot at Chilwell, Nottingham.
• A depot at Barry, Wales.
• An underground magazine at Corsham, Wiltshire.

The passing of the National Service Act (May 1939) and the introduction of compulsory training in the Militia brought a requirement to provide extra camps, the provision of which fell upon the shoulders of the Royal Engineers.

The threat of invasion - June-September 1940

There was a real fear of invasion by German forces after the fall of Dunkirk (June 1940). In preparation the Royal Engineers hastily constructed defences. Much of the construction work, such as erecting concrete pillboxes, digging ditches, creating anti-tank obstacles were contracted to civilian contractors under Royal Engineer supervision.

Royal Engineer units laid mines (350,000 mines in approx. 2,000 minefields) and wire obstacles along the coastline of east and southern Britain. The Royal Canadian Engineers of the 1st Canadian Division assisted in this work.

Royal Engineer Train crews operated 4 artillery trains and 12 armoured trains; the latter were manned by Polish troops and patrolled the southern coastline.

A military postal network was established by the Royal Engineers to provide added security to military communications and to service the regional headquarters and military units.

Royal Engineers and the 'Battle of Britain' - June-September 1940

Part of the German invasion plan (Operation Seelöwe) was to gain air superiority by immobilising the RAF, this they intended to do by destroying the RAF aircraft and airbases.

Bomb Disposal and the Blitz - September 1940-Summer 1943

Bomb Disposal

After the failure of the Germans to gain air superiority, their hopes of invasion receded and they changed their strategy to that of forcing Britain into submission by bombing its major cities and industrial areas.

The bombing campaign (the Blitz) highlighted the need to dispose of unexploded German bombs left in the wake of the raids. Although the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC) were responsible for the disposal of artillery ammunition in peace time it was decided that because the Royal Engineers had carried out the task of disposing of unexploded German shells during the First World War (1914-1918) that they should be responsible for the disposal of their unexploded aircraft bombs.

The first Bomb Disposal sections were formed in May 1940. They consisted of one officer and 15 other ranks, divided into two sub-sections: one for 'removal' and the other for 'sterilization'.

In late summer 1940 as the German bombing campaign intensified the demand for the new units became so great that seven general construction and four quarry companies were converted into Bomb Disposal units. By September 1940 the Royal Engineers had formed 440 Bomb Disposal Sections consisting of over 10,000 men under the command of a Major General.

The dangers and heroism of their work is reflected in the fact that 13 members of the Bomb Disposal Service were awarded the George Cross (3 of them posthumously).

After their formation Bomb Disposal units accompanied all the major expeditionary forces to overseas theatres.

Aid to civil authorities

During the Blitz Royal Engineer units also assisted the civil authorities in repairing bomb damage.

The most notable example was in London (January 1941) when the 691st General Construction Company built a box girder bridge across a crater (18,000 sq. ft. in area) that measured 150 ft long by between 10-30 ft deep. It had been created by a bomb that had crashed through the road into the underground ticket hall of the Bank Tube Station below.

The completed bridge spanned the crater from Queen Victoria Street to Cornhill and once constructed restored the flow of traffic through the junction known as 'The Hub of the Empire'.

Organisation of the Corps - 1940-1945

Engineer-in-Chief and Director Royal Engineers

In October 1941 the post of Engineer-in-Chief (E-in-C) was established at the War Office.

The first holder of the position was Major General (later Lieutenant General Sir) Charles JS King, who held it until 1944. His principal duty was to advise the Chief of the Imperial Staff (CIGS), on all engineering matters. To assist him he had two Deputy Engineers-in-Chief (Brigadiers) and a Director of Works (DFW).

In July 1943 he was given further duties and the title of 'Director Royal Engineers'.

Arrangements at Chatham

In 1940, due to the heavy bombing of the South East of England and the Royal Navy's need for accommodation close to its Chatham dockyard, the following Royal Engineer organizations were evacutated from their Chatham barracks and were moved:

• School of Military Engineering (SME), Institute of Royal Engineers and the RE Band to Ripon, Yorkshire (see Part 6).
• RE Training Depot to Halifax, Yorkshire.

The Royal Navy occupied their vacated accommodation until 1948 when the original occupiers returned to Chatham.

Training arrangements

To cope with the primary training demands that the expansion of the Corps had created:

• Ten training battalions were formed.
• Four Motor Transport (MT) training Depots were formed.
• Additional training organisations and facilities were also established for personnel assigned to the Specialist units (e.g. Bomb Disposal, Transportation, Survey, and Postal. After 1942 more were added - Airborne engineers, Assault engineers and Movement Control).

Other Corps developments and activities at home - 1939-1943

Forestry

Thirty-nine Forestry Companies were raised from Britain and Dominions. Those stationed in Britain were chiefly deployed in the north of England and Scotland to provide timber for the war effort.

Movement Control

A facet of modern warfare is the mass movement of troops and quantities of supplies. During the First World War (1914-18) elderly and medical unfit officers usually acted as RTOs (Rail Traffic Officers) whose job it was to organised and manage troop movements at railway stations and sea ports. In 1938 Movement Control Group Royal Engineers (Supplementary Reserve) was formed. Its members were drawn from the Army's General List and they did two weeks training at No1 Railway Training Centre, Royal Engineers, Longmoor. By September 1939 two more groups were added, but the organisation, which was deployed with the BEF, proved to be ineffective.

On 1 November 1942 the Movement Control Section, Royal Engineers was formed from the Movement Control Group and all its members were capbadged as Royal Engineers. They were generally selected on the basis of their knowledge of railway systems and shipping services. Royal Engineer Movement Controllers were thereafter deployed to all theatres of war and were among the few British troops to serve in the Soviet Union (now Russia). Their task was to manage the movement of troops and supplies.

Postal (Army Postal Services)

After homes in Reading and Bournemouth, the Home Postal Centre, Royal Engineers, the main postal sorting depot for the British Army and training centre for the Royal Engineers (Postal Section) was finally established at Nottingham in May 1941 where it remained until 1947.

In 1940 six Army Postal Distribution Centres were established around the country to service Army and RAF units at the same time women of the Auxiliary Territorial Service (ATS) began to be trained as postal clerks and sorters and by the end of the war they made up 49% (1,484) of the total staffing (3,111) of Home Postal Centre.

Mail was distributed to the overseas theatres by sea (from Liverpool and Glasgow) and air (from Eastleigh, Hampshire and airfields in the Midlands). In 1944 473.8 million items of mail was dispatched from the Home Postal Centre.

• In 1936 as the threat of war grew the Treasury approved the preparation of a series of maps of various scales to cover likely theatres of operations in NW France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Maps were produced and stock-piled.
• In 1941 nine Survey companies served in the Home command.
• During 1942-43 six general survey companies were raised and trained in air-photo mapping techniques.

In 1940 as the ports on the south and east of the country (being closest to the Continent) were in danger of attack it was decided that two new ports for ocean-going ships should be built on the west coast of Scotland at Faslane and Cairn Ryan.

Royal Engineers Port construction companies built them, whilst the Railway construction companies laid 50 miles of track in the docks and connected them to the main lines.

In June 1943 in preparation for Operation Overlord work began on improving and developing the Inland Water Transport (IWT) repair depot at Marchwood, Southampton.

From late 1943 to June 1944 Marchwood was used for the construction of parts of the Mulberry Harbour.

British Expeditionary Force (BEF) - 1939-40
France and Belgium

Tactical Overview - At the request of the French Government the first contingents of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF), under command of Field Marshal Lord Gort (1886-1946) landed secretly at the ports of Cherbourg, Brest, Nantes and St Nazaire on 10 September 1939. They assembled at Le Mans, before being deployed to the Lille area to protect the northern flank of the French Maginot Line. There they remained until on 10 May 1940 when the Germans launched their invasion of the Netherlands Belgium and then France (Operation Sichelschnitt), and the BEF was ordered north to the Dyle Line. By 19 May the Germans had reached Amiens and thereby severed the BEF's lines of communication. On 26 May the British Government ordered the evacuation of the BEF by sea from Dunkirk. The evacuation was completed by 2 June 1940. Meanwhile, British forces in the Le Mans area fought on whilst at the same time were also being steadily evacuated, a task that was completed by 18 June 1940. Unfortunately the 51st Division, which fought the rearguard screening action were left to their fate and many of its personnel, including its engineers, were captured and spent the rest of the war in German prisoner of war (POW) camps.

The period from September 1939 to May 1940 is often referred to as the 'Phoney War'.

Corps' activities during 'Phoney War' - September 1939 - May 1940

The BEF Engineer-in-Chief was Major General RP Pakenham-Walsh.

Divisional Engineers

• They were engaged in strengthening the defences in the Lille area, which included the constructing of concrete pillboxes and building a network of anti-tank obstacles.
• A new formation, 'X' Force, was created from the field companies of the Territorial Army divisions to mass-produce the pillboxes.
• Tunnelling Companies constructed dugouts for principal headquarters. The GHQ dugout was located 70ft under the old Citadel at Doullens. By May 1940 it had 70 chambers with forced ventilation and anti-gas protection.
• Areas for minefields were selected but no mines were actually laid.

Works

• Established bases in Cherbourg, Brest, Nantes, St Nazaire, and Le Mans.
• A Medical base was constructed at Dieppe by 104th, 106th, 110th, 212th, 218th 290th, 291st Army Troops Companies.
• No 1 Engineer Stores Base Depot was set up at Rennes.
• Extra Artisan Works Companies were formed to assist with the construction work.
• A Camouflage factory was set up at Rouen.

Airfields

• The construction of aerodromes (airfields) became a new responsibility for the BEF Engineers.
• New companies were formed in late 1939 for this task and by May 1940 there were nearly 60 companies.
• Royal Engineer Quarry companies were reformed to provide hardcore for the runways.

Survey

Transport

• Port Operating units conducted the unloading of equipment and stores at the ports: Nantes, St Nazaire and Marseilles, Brest, Cherbourg, Caen, and St Malo, Le Havre, Rouen and Boulogne
• Railway units (8th, 29th (Survey), 150th, 151st, 152nd) laid 141 miles of track with 665 turnouts and operated the trains on the mainline between St Malo and Rennes.
• Inland Water Transport barges were sent to France to assist in the bulk movement of petrol.

Postal

The British Army Base Post Office (BAPO) was established in Cherbourg, mail was exchanged with Southampton. Postal units were deployed with their respective formations and set up Army Post Offices (APO) in their support.

Corps' activities during the 'Blitzkrieg' - May 1940

"The Royal Engineers had a busy time and the effectiveness of their demolition of bridges and river crossings as each line was evacuated helped considerably to delay the enemy advance."

The Corps at Dunkirk - May/June 1940

On 26 May the decision was taken for the BEF to withdraw to the Dunkirk perimeter. Royal Engineer units were put to work preparing the bridges over the canals and the causeways over the inundations for demolition, and they were also allocated sectors of the front to prepare for defence and to hold if attacked.

Meanwhile divisional engineers with the divisional rearguards were destroying bridges and acting in an infantry role. The most notable actions included:

• 23rd, 238th, 248th Field Companies (1st Division) - who successfully held the sector at Escaut for 36 hours until they were relieved (20-21 May).
• 7th, 59th and 225th Field Companies (4th Division) - who successfully defended the Warneton bridge which also involved fighting an offensive action against their attackers (26-27 May).
• 11th, 208th, 210th Field Companies (44th Division) - who held for 30 hours the position on Mont des Cats until the rest of the division had successfully been withdrawn within the Dunkirk perimeter (28-29 May).

Within the Dunkirk perimeter Royal Engineer units continued their demolition work of bridges, equipment and stores. Works and Survey units took on a 'field company' role.

During the evacuation the boats of the Field Park Companies were used to ferry men out to the rescue ships. 38th Field Company (5th Division) built a 'lorry' pier, as did the divisional engineers of 1st Division.

The victors inspect a British 'lorry' pier constructed by the
Royal Engineers on the Dunkirk beaches - June 1940
(Photo: IWM HU1860)

North-West Expeditionary Force (NWEF)
Norway 1940

Tactical overview - On 9 April 1940 the Germans occupied Denmark and began their invasion of Norway, a neutral state. Norway called upon Britain and France for assistance. It was decided that two forces should be sent. One to recapture Trondheim and the other Narvik. Both expeditions were ill fated from the start. The force sent to Trondheim met with strong resistance and failed to recapture the port. The Narvik force, after stiff fighting, managed to get into the town, but almost immediately afterwards was recalled because their success unfortunately coincided with the disaster at Dunkirk. Both forces were evacuated back to Britain by the end of the first week of June 1940.

The Royal Engineer units involved in these expeditions were:

• Trondheim force - 55th Field Company.
• Narvik force - 229th, 230th, 239th Field Companies and 231st Field Park Company. Members of the 230th Field Company were among the first British troops to enter Narvik on the night of 27-28 May 1940.
• Works staff, and Airfield construction, Transportation and Postal units provided support for both forces.

Special Forces - 1940

The series of military disasters in the late spring of 1940 forced Britain to re-examine how they might strike back at Nazi Germany, who were now the masters of Continental Europe. It was obvious that Britain was not strong enough to mount a conventional attack, and fell upon the idea of taking the fight back to the Germans through a series of raids, using irregular tactics. Such operations required specially trained troops and gave rise to the development of the following types of special forces:

• Airborne forces - formed to bring whole units into battle by parachute, glider and aircraft, using the enemy's open flank, the sky.
• Commando forces - formed to conduct amphibious raids against selected targets on the enemy's coastlines.

Royal Engineer officers played important parts in the development of both of these types of special forces.

Airborne Forces

On 24 June 1940, Major (later Lieutenant Colonel) JF Rock, Royal Engineers, was ordered to take charge of the organization of airborne troops and to collaborate with the RAF in their training. By October 1940 the Central Landing School (CLS - later known as the No 1 Parachute Training School), a parachute training centre, was fully operational at Ringway airport, Manchester. Squadron Leader Louis Strange DSO MC DFC of the Royal Air Force was appointed as commanding officer and he arrived at Ringway on 21 June on the official formation of the CLS.

By October 1942 another training establishment was set up in Netheravon, Wiltshire.

In November 1941 the 1st Airborne Division was formed, its divisional engineers were:

• 9th Airborne Field and 261st Airborne Field Park Companies (less a bridging section).

More airborne engineer units followed:

• 1st Parachute Squadron (1942) - as part of 1st Airborne Division.
• 2nd Parachute Squadron formed from the Holding Company, Kent Fortress, Royal Engineers. (1942).
• 3rd Parachute Squadron formed from 280th Field Company (1943) - as part of 6th Airborne Division.
• 4th Parachute Squadron formed from volunteers from the Corps (1943) - as part of 1st Airborne Division.
• 591st (Antrim) Parachute Squadron, 249th Airborne Field Company and 286th Airborne Field Park Company all formed from existing units (1943) - as part of 6th Airborne Division.
• 6th Airborne Division Postal Unit formed from volunteers from the Royal Engineers (Postal Section) (1943) - as part of 6th Airborne Division.

In 1942 the Glider Pilot Regiment (a fore runner of today's Army Air Corps) was formed. Lieutenant Colonel JF Rock, Royal Engineers was appointed its Commanding Officer, but unfortunately the following year he was tragically killed in a glider accident.

Commando Forces

The concept of a 'commando' force as an integral part of the British Army was the brainchild of Major J C Holland, Royal Engineers, working in the GS(R) branch of the War Office in 1940.

The commando units were drawn from volunteers, some from the Royal Engineers, who were formed into what were known as 'Independent Companies'. Their training in guerrilla tactics was carried out in Scotland.

The European Raids - 1940-44
France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway and Italy

• Belgium, France and the Netherlands (May-June 1940) - to destroy the oil installations and other facilities at the ports of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, Boulogne, Brest, Calais, Dunkirk and Le Havre. It has been estimated that over 400 million gallons of oil were destroyed. This force was accompanied by Kent Fortress, Royal Engineers, a unit specially trained for these tasks.
  
  
• Apulian Aqueduct, southern Italy (February 1941) - to destroy an aqueduct carrying water to Taranto and so to disrupt the water supply. This force was accompanied by airborne trained Royal Engineers.

• Spitzbergen Islands, North Atlantic (July 1941) - to destroy the port facilities. This force was accompanied by 3rd (Kent) Corps Troops, Royal Engineers and 3rd Field Company, Royal Canadian Engineers.
  
  
• Bruneval, on the coast of northern France (28 February 1942) - to capture German radar equipment. The mission was to dismantle the radar to bring back to Britain for examination, but were to destroy the remains to give the Germans the impression that the mission was to destroy the radar rather than steal it. This force was accompanied by airborne trained Royal Engineers from the newly formed 1st Airborne Division.
  
  
• St Nazaire northwest France (27/8 March 1942) - an attack on the 'Forme Eluse' lock at the entrance of the St Nazaire harbour. No Royal Engineer units took part, but Sergeant TF Durrant, Royal Engineers; a trained commando was posthumously awarded a Victoria Cross for his bravery during the raid.

• Dieppe, northern France (20 August 1942) - No Royal Engineer units took part because it was a Canadian operation and therefore the raiders were accompanied by their own Royal Canadian Engineers. However, the experience of the engineers on the raid taught valuable lessons about the need for protection whilst assaulting prepared defences, which eventually led to the formation of the Assault Engineers, whose training, tactics and equipment ensured success on the Normandy beaches during Operation Overlord (June 1944).

• Vermork, Norway (Operation 'Freshman', 19 November 1942) - to destroy the hydroelectric power station at Vermork, in Telemark, where heavy water was produced for German atomic research. Two gliders and an aircraft engaged in the raid crashed in southern Norway. All those aboard, Royal Engineers of the 1st Airborne Division (9th Airborne Field and 261st Airborne Field Park Company, Royal Engineers) and members of the Commonwealth air forces, were either killed in the crash or died later, at the hands of their German captors. The heavy water plant was eventually destroyed by a party of six Norwegians dropped by parachute in 1943.

Middle East Force (MEF) 1940-43
Egypt, Sudan, Abyssinia, Greece, Syria, Iraq, Iran, Libya

Background

When General Sir Archibald Wavell (1883-1950) became Commander-in-Chief of the Middle East Command in August 1939 his command responsibilities, centred on Cairo in Egypt, covered the security of Egypt, Palestine, Transjordania, Cyprus, Aden, Sudan, and British East Africa (Kenya, Uganda, Tanganyika and British Somalialand).

The immediate threat to the command was from the Italians based in Libya (to the west) and in the Horn of Africa (to the south). The threat became a reality when the Italians declared war on Britain on 10 June 1940.

The Middle East forces were engaged in various campaigns:

• Western Desert (December 1940- May 1943)
• Abyssinia (June 1940)
• Greece and Crete (1940-41)
• Iraq (March-June 1941)
• Persia (now Iran) and 'Aid to Russia' (1941-45)
• Syria(June-July 1941)

On 5 July 1941 General Sir Claude Auchinleck (1884-1981) took over command of the Middle East. He was himself superseded by General Harold Alexander (1891-1969) in August 1942. In the same month General Montgomery (1887-1976) was appointed commander of the 8th Army, which was formed from the original Western Desert Force.

Western Desert operations 1940-1943

Tactical overview - On the 13 September 1940 Italian forces from Cyrenaica (now Libya) crossed the Egyptian frontier and advanced 70 miles to Sidi Barrani where they halted to await reinforcements before they resumed their planned advance on Cairo and so began the series of campaigns that marked the three year Western Desert war. For both sides the campaigns were a succession of advances and retreats across open desert and along the coast road. In the case of the British the campaigns were punctuated by an initial victory over the Italians, then a reversal of fortunes brought by the arrival of the German General Rommel (1891-1944) and the Afrika Korps (March 1941), which continued until the tables were finally turned at El Alamein (October 1942) when Montgemory's 8th Army seriously defeated Rommel's forces. After the victory and hard fighting, the Axis (German and Italian) forces were finally expelled from North Africa in May 1943.

Western Desert - Divisional engineers activities

Throughout the Western Desert campaigns the divisional engineers were engaged in their usual role of providing bridging, constructing defences and removing obstacles, but the peculiar conditions of the desert meant that a lot of their energies and resources were taken up providing a water supply, deception (camouflage), airfields, and mine defences and clearance.

Water

One of the primary tasks of the engineers throughout the Western Desert campaigns, fought in very arid conditions, was to provide a water supply. This entailed locating water on selected routes, boring for water, cleansing water, installing water pumps, water storage facilities and laying water pipes. During the periods of retreat the engineers were responsible for denying water to the enemy, this involved dismantling or destroying water facilities and pouring 'bone oil' into water wells.

Deception (camouflage)

The vast open spaces of the desert made it difficult to conceal forces and their activities; to over come this difficulty the engineers were employed in creating appropriate deceptions. Notable examples were:

• At the very beginning of the campaign (December 1940) the Italian forces that had invaded Egypt, out numbered the British. The only way the British could vanquish the Italians was to take them by surprise. To this effect the 2nd, 12th and 54th Field Companies produced 80 dummy tanks, which were placed in the rear areas to distract the Italian air force and to allow the main British force to advance unnoticed. The ruse worked and the British defeated the Italians at the battle of Sidi Barrani (11 December 1940).

El Alamein 1942 - Vast quantities of stores were stock-piled in preparation for the battle and were hidden under crude covers made to look like vehicles. The Royal Engineers were responsible for constructing such deceptions. (Photo: Tank Museum)

El Alamein 1942 - A dummy pumping station with a dummy soldier looking as if he is operating it. This was part of Operation Bertram, the deception plan for the battle implemented by units of the Royal Engineers. (Photo: Tank Museum)

• During the build up to the final battle of El Alamein (October 1942) the deception plan required the engineers to build and place dummy lorries on the sites where the tanks and guns would be finally placed. The deception went further with dummy pipelines being laid leading to dummy pumping stations and reservoirs, this work was also conducted in such a way that it led the Axis intelligence to believe that it would be completed long after the actual planned date of the start of the battle (23 October 1942).

Airfield construction

The growth in the strength of the RAF in the theatre made the production of airfields extremely important. During the early campaigns (1940-41) engineer field units were able to provide advanced landing grounds for aircraft acting in close co-operation with the army, where the requirement was to select a level area with a hard surface and clear it of stones.

In June 1941 a Chief Engineer Works (Airfields) was appointed to the staff of the Engineer-in-Chief, Middle East to take charge of all airfield construction and maintenance. Special construction units were allocated to each theatre and a better supply of stores became available (e.g. Sommerfeld track and Army track, and by mid 1942 Pierced Steel Plank (PSP) and Pre-bituminized Surface (PBS)), which were used to construct the surface of the runways.

Mines

Before 1941 mines played only a peripheral role on the battlefield, but in the Western Desert massed armoured formations and largely featureless terrain combined to create ideal conditions for the use of mines in a defensive role. Across the coastal strip there were few features that could be used for defence, so mines, along with barbed wire, offered the only economic means of defence.

In the first campaign the advancing British troops met considerable numbers of mines in the Italian defensive positions. These were detected and located by the observation of disturbed soil and probing with bayonets. After the Afrika Korps arrived (March 1941) and with them the reversal of British arms in the Western Desert, the British began to use mines to cover their withdrawals. Their mine stocks were extremely low so the Royal Engineers used recovered Italian and German mines, as well as, mines built in hastily established factories in Egypt.

The experiences of both laying and clearing mines during the early stages of the campaign taught the engineers valuable lessons. Early in 1942 a Royal Engineers School of Mine Warfare (Major P Moore, Royal Engineers), was established near El Alamein. Its objectives were:

1. To find out the best way to breach or make gaps in minefields.
2. To evolve and teach standard drills for clearing mines and recording the laying of minefields.
3. To try out ideas, devices and expedients which might be proposed.

The drills taught at the School proved their worth. In preparation for the battle of El Alamein (October 1942) the engineers used the drills to lay minefields and during the opening phases of the battle (Operation Lightfoot) they used them to successfully clear routes through the Axis minefields, the 'Devil's garden', of about 500,000 mines laid in two major fields running north-south across the whole front with a total depth of about 5 miles, to allow infantry and armour formations to move forward and engage the enemy.

Early in the campaign (1940-41) the engineers of the South African forces (Lieutenant Colonel M Coleman SAEC and a civilian engineer ASJ Du Toit ) experimented with flailing devices attached to the front of vehicles (known as 'Scorpion') as a method of mine clearance. The machines were used with some success during the battle of El Alamein and led to the idea being generally adopted by other British forces and was later incorporated in the designs and functions of the Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers (AVRE) developed for the Assault (armoured) engineers for use in the North West Europe and Italian campaigns (1944-45).

Siege of Tobruk - June-December 1941

In September 1941 the Tobruk garrison (9th Australian Division), which had held out against Rommel's army for over six months, was relieved by sea by the 70th British Division commanded by engineer Major General R Scobie.

The 2nd, 12th and 54th Field and 219th Field Park Companies plus Transportation and Postal units accompanied the Division. A Polish Field company was also attached. Their work involved strengthening the defences, constructing an underground hangar for the RAF and developing methods of dealing with mines, including the German Tellermine.

Battle of El Alamein - 23 October - 4 November 1942

The battle of El Almein, fought between the British 8th Army (Montgomery) and the Axis forces under Rommel just west of Cairo, resulted in victory for the Allies and was one of the turning points of the war because it marked the beginning of the Allies successful march to final victory. The British, Dominion and Colonial engineers played an important role in that victory. The official Corps history lists the engineering contribution as being:

• The thorough preparation of the defences and their completion with tracks, water and other administrative necessities, helped to provide the firm springboard from which the attack was launched.
  
  
• The efficient and patient clearing of gaps through the huge minefields amidst the stresses and strains of the battle, enabled the armoured forces to break through the enemy defences and to rout his forces in the field.
  
  
• The destruction of disabled enemy tanks and guns prevented their salvage and repair for further use against the Allied troops.

All these tasks, and many more, each comprising a number of small operations often carried out by quite small parties of engineers, constituted an important share in the effort of the 8th Army in winning this decisive battle.

After the victory the 8th Army pursued the Axis forces back through Libya and onto Tunisia, where in conjunction with Anglo-American forces, sweeping east from Algeria, they finally defeated them on 11 May 1943.

Abyssinia - 1940-41

The Italians forcibly annexed Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) in 1936, and following their declaration of war in June 1940 invaded British Somalialand in August 1940. During autumn 1940 the British built up forces in Sudan and Kenya in preparation for the eviction of the Italians from their territories in the Horn of Africa. In February 1941 the British counter-attack was launched - 4th and 5th Indian Divisions from Sudan, and 11th and 12th African Division from Kenya. Asmara was taken on 1 April 1940 and Addis Ababa was taken on 6 April. The two forces then combined and pursued the Italians into the mountains, where they surrendered on 17 May 1941.

In September 1940 the 5th Indian Division was sent to Sudan, the Division was accompanied by:

• 2nd, 20th, 21st Field Companies (Bombay) Sappers and Miners.
• 44th Field Park Company (Bombay) Sappers and Miners.
• 6th, 8th Army Troop Companies (Bombay) Sappers and Miners.
• 16th Workshops and Park Company (Bombay) Sappers and Miners.

The field engineers' initial tasks were: to develop water supplies, improve roads, fords and ferry crossings over the Atbara and other rivers. At the same time the Army Troop and Workshop engineers improved the defences (including constructing concrete pill boxes, laying mines and preparing airfields to be cratered). They also constructed bases and improved the railways and roads.

In February 1941 during the British force's advance into Eritrea, 2nd Lieutenant (later Lieutenant General) Premindra Singh Bhagat, 21st Field Company, Indian Engineers was awarded a Victoria Cross for the coolness he displayed over a 96 hour period in leading the Column and clearing mine fields. It was the first Victoria Cross to be won by a member of the Indian Army in the Second World War.

In January 1941 the 11th and 12th African Divisions pushed north from Kenya and was accompanied by East African, West African and South African engineer units.

Greece - October 1940-April 1941

On 15 October 1940 the Italians based in Albania launched an attack on northern Greece. Their forces are repelled by the Greeks but on 5 April 1941 the Germans began an invasion of Greece. In anticipation of German involvement the Greek government requested assistance from the British in March 1941. A force consisting of the 6th, 7th Australian Divisions, 2nd NZ Division and two brigades (1st Armoured and Polish) was sent to Greece to maintain a defensive line northeast of Mount Olympus and hence northward to the frontier with Yugoslavia.

The Dominion forces had their own engineers, but the Royal Engineers who accompanied this force were:

• 3rd (Cheshire) Field Squadron
• Section of 292nd Field Company
• Works, Survey, Transportation and Postal units.

The engineers were set to work improving the roads and setting demolitions. During the withdrawal from northern Greece they demolished bridges and created other obstacles. The King of Greece agreed to the evacuation of the British forces on 19 April 1941. A force of 43,000 was evacuated from Peloponnesus - 16,000 to Egypt and 27,000 to Crete.

Crete - April-June 1941

42nd Field Company was already on Crete before the evacuees, among whom were most of the Royal Engineers units, arrived from Greece. The engineers arrived without their equipment and were therefore chiefly used as infantry during the fight against the German airborne invasion of the island on 19-22 May 1941.

After stiff fighting it was decided to evacuate the British forces to Egypt. Those not evacuated, which included members of the Royal Engineers, were taken prisoner by the Germans.

Iraq - March-June 1941

Iraq, formerly known as Mesopotamia, became a self-governing state under a League of Nations mandate in 1932. After a period of political instability Rashid Ali, who was pro-Axis, came to power in 1941. The Iraqi Kirkuk oilfields, that were linked to the Mediterranean by an over ground oil pipe line, provided much needed oil for the Allied war effort, so Britain saw it necessary to land a force (10 Indian Division) at Basra to protect their interests. Brief actions were fought at Habbaniya and Falluja.

The engineers involved were:

• 2nd (Cheshire) Field Squadron ('Habforce' dispatched from Palestine)
• 10 Field Company, Sappers and Miners (10 Indian Division).

The engineers were engaged in road building to assist the movement of 'Habforce' and during the attack at Falluja they built a bridge across the Euphrates, as well as, operating a ferry.

Persia (Iran) and 'Aid to Russia' - August 1941

In the summer 1941 the British and Soviets (USSR) requested that the Iranian Government expell the Axis nationals from their capital, Teheran. Their request fell on deaf ears so in August 1941 a joint Soviet and British force (8th Indian Division) occupied the country.

The engineers involved were:

• 7th, 66th, 69th Field Companies, Sappers and Miners.
• 47th Field Park, Sappers and Miners.

Aid to Russia - was the provision of food and war supplies to the Soviets by the British and Americans. The supplies were transshipped from Iraq through to Iran's northern borders with USSR using road and rail links. The responsibility for operating the trains, and where necessary constructing rail track and roads, fell to the Royal Engineers and Indian Engineers Transportation units. This remained the case until the American army took over the tasks in April 1943.

Syria - June-July 1941

Syria, a French mandated country, was of strategical importance to Britain because of the oil pipe line that ran through the country from Iraq to the Mediterranean, therefore when France fell and the Syrian Government voiced pro-Vichy sentiments; there was a requirement for regime change. A joint British and Free-French force invaded the country and after some stiff resistance the Syrians sued for peace, giving the Allies the regime change they required to secure their supplies of oil.

The engineers engaged in this short campaign were:

• 6th Australian Division - Two Field Companies, Royal Australian Engineers plus 2nd, 12th, and 54th Field Companies, Royal Engineers
• 'Habforce' - 2nd (Cheshire) Field Squadron
• Elements of 10th Indian Division - 9th Field Company and 31st Field Squadron Sappers and Miners.

Turkey 1942-43

In the winter of 1939 a treaty between Turkey and Britain was agreed. It required Britain to go to Turkey's assistance if Germany invaded Thrace, however the agreement was nullified when Italy declared war on Britain. Nevertheless two Royal Engineers construction groups, working in civilian clothing, were deployed to Turkey in 1942. They built 220 miles of Class 70 roads and 30 airfields.

Middle East Command - Other Corps activities 1940-43

Works

• The Needham committee (October 1939) recommended that a Middle East Base be established in Egypt for a force of 15 divisions with corps and GHQ troops - a total strength of 296,694 service personnel.
• A RASC (MT) Depot and RAOC Depot (240,000 sq ft) were constructed in the Tel-el-Kebir area.
• Other depots and troop accommodation were constructed along the Suez Canal, in Sudan, Syria and Palestine.
• The Tura Caves were enlarged to accommodate Ordinance and Signal stores, and a Survey map printing plant.
• An extensive road development programme was executed.

Transportation

• Ports and Docks - Port construction companies redeveloped port facilities at Port Said, Suez, Aqaba and on the Sweet Water Canal. Operating companies carried out stevedoring work in these and other ports.
• Railways - An extensive rail development programme was executed by the Royal Engineers who also took charge of some the operations of the trains.
• Inland Water Transport - Organised the transportation of stores on the Nile and in the Delta. They built several small craft including the 'Z' craft. The 'Z' craft was later used in other theatres.

Survey

• During the first campaign in the Western Desert against the Italians Italian maps were captured and passed back to Cairo, which enabled Survey to produce up-to date maps for the advancing forces.
• A map printing plant was set up in Tura Caves, Egypt.

Postal

• Base Army Post Office (BAPO) was established in Cairo to serve all formations in the Middle East Command.
• In early 1941 an airmail service was introduced using the 'airgraph' and later the 'air letter form'. Airmails were routed across the southern Sahara region from Takoradi, West Africa to Khartoum, Sudan then north to Cairo. Thus considerably reducing the transit time between the UK and the Middle East and thereby assisting in maintaining the morale of both the troops and their families at home.
• Postal trained members of the ATS were deployed to the Cairo BAPO in 1944.

Mediterranean Bases 1939-1945
Gibraltar and Malta

Gibraltar - 1939-45

Gibraltar, the 'Rock', first became a British possession in 1704. Its location on a peninsula jutting into the Mediterranean sea, allows it to monitor and control the sea traffic through the Strait of Gibraltar, the passage of water that connects the Atlantic ocean to the Mediterranean sea, and for that reason it was of paramount strategic importance to Britain - protecting as it does the western entrance of the sea route through the Mediterranean to the Suez Canal and beyond.

In 1939 there were just two Royal Engineer units (1st and 32nd Fortress Companies) on the Rock. As war approached they were put to work improving the defences, but after the fall of France, and when the Italians declared war on Britain it was clear that the Rock had to be made impregnable, such a plan proposed tunnelling into the Rock to provide shelter, stores and accommodation for a large garrison and a naval dock yard.

To construct the tunnels the following engineer units were dispatched to Gibraltar over the period 1940-42:

• 170th, 172nd, 178th, 179th and 180th Tunnelling Companies.
• 1st (det) and 3rd Tunnelling Companies, Royal Canadian Engineers.
• 711th Artisan Works Company.
• 575th Army Troops Company.
• a General Construction Company.

These units constructed an underground hospital, extensive storage and accommodation areas all complete with a water supply system and underground power stations that had a capacity to generate 1,200 kilowatts. By the end of the war they had excavated 1,087,905 cubic yards of rock (the equivalent of burrowing a 10 ft diameter tunnel from London to Liverpool - approx 200 miles).

In 1942, as Gibraltar had become an important stopover for air traffic flying between Britain and Egypt, more engineer units (855th Quarrying Company, 807th Road Construction Company and an Excavator Company) arrived to extend the airfield.

During the period 1940-43 the Rock was used as a base to provide air cover for the British Mediterranean Fleet and to support Malta.

Malta 1939-45

Malta, an island located 75 miles south of Sicily, had been a British possession since 1814. The island acted as the Headquarters of the British Mediterranean Fleet, but when Italy entered the war the Fleet was moved to Gibraltar. Nevertheless, Malta remained an important base for both the Royal Navy and RAF. They used the island as a base from which to cover the passage of convoys to Egypt, as well as, to launch attacks against the Axis lines of communication. It was because of these reasons that the island was subjected to intensive bombing by the Axis air forces and was to all intents and purposes placed in a state of siege for over a year (1941-2).

The Governor at the time of the siege was an engineer officer, Lieutenant General Sir William Dobbie (1869-1964), who "inspired the Maltese in a way that few more spectacular men could have done".

The engineer units on the island during the siege were:

• Works staff
• 16th and 24th Fortress Companies.
• Two Bomb Disposal platoons (under the command of Lieutenant A Talbot GC).
• 173rd Tunnel Company (from August 1941).

On 16 April 1942 the island was awarded the George Cross in recognition of the gallantry that the inhabitants and garrison had exhibited during the siege.

British North Africa Force (BNAF) 1942-43
Algeria and Tunisia

In December 1941 the Americans entered the war, six months later in July 1942 a joint Anglo-American operation (Operation Torch) to land forces in North West Africa was agreed and planned. The overall command of the operation was given to the American Lieutenant General Dwight David Eisenhower (1890-1969).

The invasion force sailed directly from England and landed, largely unopposed, near Algiers on 8 November 1942.

The engineers involved in the invasion were:

• 564th , 751st Field Companies, det 5th Field Squadron (V Corps)
• 237th , 256th, Field Companies, 281st Field Park Company, 5th Mechanical Equipment Section (78th Division)
• 228th, 256th Field Companies, 22nd Mechanical Equipment Section (36th Infantry Brigade)
• 'A' and 'C' Troops 1st Parachute Squadron (1st Airborne Division).
• Works, Survey, Transportation, Movement Control and Postal units.

Amongst the first objectives of the invasion was the capture of the Maison Blanche and Blida airfields, both were achieved with ease. Afterwards the 14th Airfield Construction Group was tasked with developing them both for the use of the RAF and American Air Force.

Operation Torch marked several 'firsts' for the Allied armies and their engineers:

• Airborne operations - For the first time British Airborne troops were deployed in advance of the regular troops to hold and secure strategic objectives (until this point in the war their deployments had been confined to commando style raids). Members of 1st Parachute Squadron, Royal Engineers were engaged as follows:
  • 'C' Troop was engaged in the operation to capture Bone airfield (11 November 1942).
  • 'A' Troop accompanied the operation to secure Souk el Arba. Their mission was to rally the French to the Allied cause (16 November 1942).


• Bailey bridging equipment - Engineers units had for the first time the Bailey bridge as part of their equipment.
  • 237th Field Company were the first unit to construct a Bailey bridge in contact with the enemy. This occurred on 25 November 1942 when they constructed a 100 ft Bailey bridge over the river Medjerda at Madjez el Bab, Tunisia.

By April 1943 the Axis forces were trapped in Tunisia between the 8th Army in the west and the Anglo-American forces in the east. On 11 May 1943 the Axis forces in North Africa finally surrendered to the Allies.

The lessons learnt during the invasion phase of Operation Torch were soon used to inform an invasion plan of Sicily and than Italy.

Central Mediterranean Force (CMF) - 1943-45
Sicily and Italy

Sicily - July - August 1943

Tactical Overview - Operation Husky, the Allied codename for the Anglo-American invasion of Sicily, was mounted to capture Sicily. The operation was under the supreme command of the American Lieutenant General Dwight David Eisenhower (1890-1969). His deputy was the British Lieutenant General Harold Alexander (1891-1969), who commanded the 15th Army Group comprising of the American 7th Army (Patton) and the British 8th Army (Montgomery).

On the night of 9/10 July 1943 the British 1st Airborne Division's gliderborne forces (with 9th Airborne Field Company, Royal Engineers) began the invasion with the capture of the Ponte Grande bridge south of Syracuse and on the morning of 10 July 1943 the ground troops of the British 8th Army landed on the beaches between Cassabile and Castellazo.

The plan required the Divisional engineers to:

• Deal with beach obstacles and minefields below and above high water mark.
• Prepare tracks up and exits off the beaches.
• Repair or construct airfields.
• Facilitate the advance inland.

The engineers involved in the invasion were:

• 9th Airborne Field Squadron (1st Airborne Division)
• 38th, 245th, 252nd, Field and 254th Field Park Companies (5th Division).
• 233rd, 505th Field and 295th Field Companies (50th Division).
• 274th, 275th, 276th Field and 239th Field Companies (51st Division).
• Royal Canadian Engineers of the 1st Canadian Division.
• Works, Survey, Transportation, Movement Control and Postal units.

Italy - September 1943-May 1945

Tactical overview - After Sicily was secured it was possible for the Allies to use it as a springboard to invade Italy. The Anglo-American force, 15th Army Group, under General Harold Alexander (1981-1969) consisting of the American 5th Army (Clark) and the British 8th Army (Montgomery) began their invasion on 9 September 1943. The invasion plan was for a three-prong attack at the selected points of Salerno, Reggio and Taranto. The latter two were carried out by the 8th Army and were met with little or no opposition. The Americans at Salerno met with stiff opposition but did eventually manage to secure a beachhead.

After the Salerno beachhead had been secured the American 5th Army advanced up the west side of Italy while the British 8th Army advanced up the east. Each army had to batter its way north through a series of well prepared German defence - Viktor Line, Gustav Line, Caesar Line, and Gothic Line. Progress was slow hampered by the mountainous terrain, with its sheer faces, steep gullies and false crests coupled with deep valleys of marshes and broad rivers. The engineers were used extensively to overcome these obstacles.

Italy - Initial landings - September 1943

Salerno (Operation Avalanche) - Although this was essentially an American operation, British troops were involved and their engineers were:

• 4th, 21st Field and 143rd Field Park Squadron (7th Armoured Division)
• 4th, 220th, 221st Field and 563rd Field Park Companies (56th Division)
• Det 15th Airfield Construction Group
• Transportation, Movement Control and Postal units.

No obstacles were encountered on the beaches, but the engineers were soon engaged in the construction of culverts to give access to off road dumps, the preparation of defences, the construction of airstrips. Their bulldozers were used to extract seven ditched tanks and to keep the traffic moving off the beaches. Within the beachhead area the Transportation units repaired and then operated the port of Salerno.

Reggio - The landing was met with little resistance so after securing the bridgehead the engineers of 5th Division and 1st Canadian Division were engaged in the construction of landing craft ramps, 'Z' craft berths, a train ferry terminal, whilst the 932nd Port Construction and Repair company pumped out the dry dock. During the advance up the toe of Italy, the engineers built a total of 24 Bailey bridges.

Taranto - There was no opposition mounted against 1st Airborne Division's landing at Taranto. A sapper of 261st Airborne Field Park Company drove a train deep into enemy territory and released 300 prisoners of war. 9th Airborne Field Company operated the port until the arrival of a Port Construction and Repair Company.

Italy - The slog northwards - October 1943- May 1945

Throughout the Italian campaign the British, Dominion and Indian engineers were engaged in maintaining, building and repairing roads, constructing bridge and ferry crossings over fast flowing rivers, clearing mines and other obstacles, restoring electricity and water supplies, building troop accommodation, repairing and operating ports and railways, constructing and repairing airfields, mapping, bomb disposal, controlling troop and store movements, and maintaining the mail services.

Bridging

British, Dominion and Indian engineers constructed or re-constructed 3,618 bridges during the period 1943-45 this was due to the terrain over which the armies advanced and the destruction of bridges by the retreating German army.

• 'Sangro' Bridge
  • Construction dates: 4-14 December 1943
  • Details: 1,126ft long Class 30 bridge, which spanned the river Sangro. It was the longest Bailey bridge built during the whole campaign.
  • Constructed by: 561st, 586th, 587th Field Companies, Det 1st Canadian Drilling Company and Det 138th Mechanical Equipment Company.

• 'Plymouth' Bridge
  • Construction dates: 11/12 May 1944 (Operation Diadem)
  • Details: A single-double Bailey 100 ft long that was carried forward on two Sherman tanks. It was supported in the front tank by rollers, so that when this tank reached the bridging gap, the rear tank could launch the bridge. It was the first Bailey assault bridge to be built in the field and spanned 70ft gap over the Rapido river.
  • Constructed by: 4th Division engineers

• 'Amazon' Bridge
  • Construction dates: 12/13 May 1944 (Operation Diadem)
  • Details: 80 ft Class 30 Bailey bridge built over Rapido river under constant fire. The bridge was built as part of the Allies break-out of the Gustav Line. Work started at 5.45pm (12 May) and completed at 5.30am (13 May). The human cost was high; 15 sappers were killed and 57 (including 3 officers) wounded.
  • Constructed by: 7th, 59th, 225th Field Companies (4th Division)

• 'Houdini' type
  • Construction dates: various dates during the final stages of the campaign.
  • Details: It consisted of a steel cable taken across a river, which was passed through a couple of snatch blocks, and back to a tackle on the near bank. Decking of timber was snaked-lashed to the cables. This bridge was designed to be collapsed during the day and resurrected at night to allow troops to move over it unobserved under the cover of darkness.
  • Developed by: 10th Field Company, IE (10th Indian Division)

• 'Springbok' Bridge
  • Construction dates: 25 April - 4 May 1945
  • Details: The South African engineers repaired the former main road bridge over the Po river at Pontelagoscuro using specially designed and modified Bailey equipment.
  • Constructed by: South African Corps Troops SAEC

Mine clearance

Mines were used extensively by the Germans and were cleared by the engineers. On 24 February 1944, Subedar Subramanyan, 11th Field Park Company, Indian Engineers was in charge of a party of sappers clearing mines near Mignano, Italy. He was awarded a posthumous George Cross for preventing the deaths of his party by flinging his bo