Corps History - Part 14
The Corps and the First World War (1914-18)

The Beginning

It is generally regarded that the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) of Austria in Serbia was the catalyst that precipitated the start of the First World War (1914-18).

Britain's involvement began on 4 August 1914 when Germany invaded neutral Belgium, and thereby forced Britain to declare war on the aggressor because Britain was one of the guarantors of Belgium's neutrality, an arrangement that had been in existence since the founding of that state in 1831.

At the outset of the war the British Prime Minister, Herbert Asquith (1852-1928) appointed as his Secretary of State for War the engineer officer Field Marshal Lord Kitchener (1850-1916). Kitchener predicted that the war was likely to be protracted therefore he saw a need for a large army to sustain it. After obtaining Cabinet approval he set about expanding the Army to over 70 divisions. The newly raised units were referred to as the New Army (or Kitchener’s Armies), and the first of them saw active service in 1915.

Tragically, Kitchener was drowned in 1916 whilst travelling to Russia aboard HMS Hampshire, which struck a mine near Scapa Flow.

During the war the Corps expanded considerably. The reasons for the expansion were twofold:

1. The need to provide extra field engineering support for the newly formed armies
2. The taking on of new responsibilities by the Royal Engineers, such as; tunnelling, forestry, quarrying, chemical warfare (gas), inland water transport, camouflage, postal and the Army Pigeon Service.

During the the war new survey techniques were developed, which included: mapping from aerial photographs, 'sound ranging' and 'flash spotting'. Members of the Corps also developed new equipment and weapons such as; the Nissen hut, the Mills bomb, the Stokes mortar and the Fullerphone.

Members of the Corps also displayed great courage for 17 members of the Corps were awarded Victoria Crosses.

Throughout the war the British Army and the forces of the Empire fought on many fronts and were accompanied by their engineers:

• Western Front (Belgium and France) - 1914-18
• Egypt and Palestine - 1914-18
• Mesopotamia (now Iraq) - 1914-22
• East and West Africa - 1914-18
• Gallipoli - 1915-16
• The Balkans - 1915-18
• Italy - 1917-18
• Russia - 1918-20

By its own admission the Corps was ill-prepared for the war, as were other branches of the army; this state came about as an after effect of the Esher Committee reforms (1904-05) and were made worse by the inability of the General Staff to give adequate guidance as to the type of warfare that the army of the twentieth century was likely to fight. The General Staff had no experience of Continental warfare and could only draw on their observations and experiences of the colonial wars of the past.

Strength of Royal Engineers - 1914-18

The war produced an unprecedented expansion of the Corps from about 25,000 men in 1914 to approximately 315,000 in 1918 (78% expansion).

The percentage changes in the proportions of the 'teeth arms' within the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) also give an indication to the extent of the expansion of the Corps of the Royal Engineers during the First World War (1914-18). At the beginning of the war the Royal Engineers made up nearly 6% of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) but by July 1918 that figure had nearly doubled to just over 11% - see table below:

Royal Engineers (George V - 1910-36) cap badge worn by First World War Royal Engineers.

Percentage changes of arms in the BEF (1914-18)   Sep 1914 Sep 1915 Sep 1916 Sep 1917 Mar 1918 Jul 1918 % % % % % % Cavalry 9.28 3.88 3.02 2.77 1.65 1.65 Infantry 64.64 69.89 61.74 58.69 53.71 51.25 RFA/RHA 18.27 14.32 15.48 13.56 16.67 18.30 RGA 1.31 2.73 4.24 6.21 7.90 8.68 Royal Engineers 5.91 7.96 10.89 12.28 10.11 11.24 Tank Corps - - 0.04 0.50 1.05 1.20 Royal Flying Corps 0.59 0.44 1.16 1.90 3.24 - RFA - Royal Field Artillery, RHA - Royal Horse Artillery RGA - Royal Garrison Artillery Source: The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army (p. 216)

The 1914-1918 Royal Engineers roll records the names of 19,794 men who were either killed or died on service.

Home Front - 1914-18

On the Home Front the Royal Engineers were engaged in a variety of activities to sustain the war effort such as:

• Works programmes; ranging from the provision of accommodation to land requisition, from forestry to weapon development.
• Coast and Air Defence operations.
• Transportation activities from mobilization by rail to port and Inland Water Transport operations.
• Signal, Survey and Postal services.

Works Activities

The Royal Engineers' Directorate of Fortifications and Works (DFW) was responsible for identififying, organising, managing and implementing a variety of Works programmes to sustain the war effort some of which are given below:

Hutting

• Major BHO Armstrong RE designed a series of schemes for hutted camps to suit different types of the units. The schemes were approved by the Army Council and in late August 1914 were distributed to the Commands for the Chief Engineers to supervise construction.
• A separate Directorate for Barracks were established in late August 1914 to manage the camp construction and maintenance programmes.

Rifle Ranges

Colonel J H Cowan (late RE) identified sites for rifle ranges and supervised their construction, but due to a shortage of ammunition they could not be used until after 1915. Miniature ranges were constructed at all camps.

Hospitals

Schemes were prepared by Major BHO Armstrong RE for hutted hospitals of 600 beds with all accessory buildings. These schemes were soon implemented and by 1917 the hutted hospitals acounted for 320,000 military hospital beds in Great Britain.

Land

• In 1914 the Royal Engineers were the responsible custodians of all land and property held by the War Office.
• Once the war started and the Government embarked a series of land requisitions to accommodate camps (notably at: Catterick, Ripon, Wareham, Bovington, Swanage, Lulworth and Longmoor), firing ranges, training grounds etc.

Coast and Air Defence

The war brought to Britain the traditional threat of coastal attack, as well as, the new threat of aerial bombing made possible by the recent technological advances in aeronautics. The Royal Engineers were soon engaged in developing defences against these new threats. Their contribution was the development of observation techniques using searchlights.

Coast defence

Throughout the war the Royal Engineers continued with their responsibility of maintaining and expanding the coastal defence installations built by previous generations of Sappers.

In 1914 the command of coast defence areas was divided between the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. The Royal Engineers officers commanded:

• Thames and Medway Defences
• Scottish Coast Defences
• South Irish Coast Defences
• Liverpool Coast Defences
• Tyne Coast Defences

New Fortress Companies were formed to provide the manpower to man the searchlight element of the coastal defences, a legacy of the defunct Royal Engineers Submarine Mining Service (the Service transferred to the Royal Navy in 1905). In 1915 many former members of Royal Engineers Submarine Mine Service were transferred to the newly formed Royal Marines Submarine Mine Service established to lay and operate defence minefields in the Channel off Dover.

Air defence

Aerial attack was a new form of warfare introduced through the advances in airship and aircraft technology. The first bombing raid on Britain took place in December 1914 when German Zeppelin airships dropped bombs in the Dover area. Thereafter Zeppelin bombing raids continued on London, as well as on locations on the East coast and on one occasion on Chester. In 1916 the Germans switched from using airships to aeroplane (Gothas).

As a consequence of the air attacks 50th Field Searchlight (FSL) Company RE was reformed in 1915 to provide searchlight anti-aircraft (AA) defence for London. The Tyne Electrical Engineers took over the running of the School of Electric Lighting, Gosport and operated it until the end of the war. By December 1915 AA searchlights units were raised as part of the Royal Engineers (TF) and deployed in the defence of industrial cities and ports throughout Britain.

Training

At the beginning of the war the Royal Engineers had two main training establishments; the School of Military Engineering, Chatham and RE Training Depot, Aldershot, but the rapid expansion of the Army (from 7 to 70 Divisions) and the demands that that imposed on the need for training soon overwhelmed these establishments so the School of Military Engineering was expanded and two satellite establishments were set up to provide the extra capacity required to deliver training.

• Newark, Lincolnshire - opened Spring 1915. By August 1915 the establishment was training 3,000 men.
• Deganwy, North Wales - opened September 1915.

Both of these establishments were closed at the end of the war, and the School of Military Engineering, Chatham resumed sole responsibility for training.

Other Corps activities

Transportation

• 1914 - The Royal Engineers Railway Transport Establishment managed the mobilization of the British Expedition Force (BEF) in 1914.
• The Engineer and Railway Staff Corps rendered services to assist in the movement of stores, troops and the management of the railways.
• 1916 - The Royal Engineers Inland Water Transport Section established a Stores and Personnel Depot at Richborough, Kent. It was later expanded to include the cross-Channel barge service.
• 1917 - The cross-Channel ferry was brought into operation between Richborough and Calais with a supplementary service from Southampton to Dieppe.

Survey

• 1911 - The Geographic Section began work on the preparation of maps of north-east France and Belgium which were packed and made ready for issue on mobilization.
• 1913 - An extensive trigonometrical suvey of Plymouth defences fixed positions of guns, datum points, depression range finders and searchlights.
• 1914 - The Ordnance Survey was placed wholly at the disposal of the War Office and with the help of the Royal Geographic Society were able to assist the Royal Engineers to met the demands for mapping placed upon them.

Postal

• 1914 - Home Postal Depot was established in the General Post Office (GPO) Mount Pleasant Building, London to process army mail and to train members of the Postal Section. By the end of the war it was staffed by 2,540 personnel. Mail was sent by boat to the Base Army Post Office (BAPO) in the theatre of war. The BAPO then organised the distribution of the mail to units through the Field Post Offices (FPO).
• 1915 - An Army Parcel Sorting Office was built in Regents Park, London. It was believed to be the largest wooden building in the world covering an area of five acres.
• 1917 - The workload for processing army mails became so great that part of the work was diverted to other GPO sorting offices around the country.

Western Front - 1914-18

Engineer-in-Chief BEF - At the beginning of the war the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) only had an Engineer advisor, the Brigadier-General Royal Engineers attached to the General Headquarters (GHQ) as it was expected that he would not have "much to do in this war!". However, it soon became apparent that he would have "much to do" and consequently in January 1915 his position was elevated to that of Chief Engineer, BEF. By July his function had been further enhanced and he was given the title of Engineer-in-Chief (E-in-C).

In September 1915 he was authorised to correspond directly with the field armies and corps on matters connected with the design and pattern of engineer stores and general questions affecting Royal Engineers equipment and issues.

The officers appointed as Engineer-in-Chief BEF were:

• 1915-16 - Brigadier-General (later Lieutenant General Sir) George Fowke - he was promoted to the Adjutant-General BEF
• 1916-17 - Major General (later Sir) Spring R Rice - In 1901 he invented the octagonal blockhouse used during the Anglo-Boer war (1899-1902).
• 1917-18 - Major General (later Sir) Gerard M Heath.

In April 1916 it was laid down that the Engineer-in-Chief BEF should report to the Chief of General Staff (CGS) in respect of operations and defence, and the Quartermaster General (QMG) for works matters.

1914 - The Corps and the war of movement

1914 - Tactical overview - The German Schieffen plan aimed at striking a knockout blow on France by sweeping behind French defences, via Belgium, and down through northern France to capture Paris, began on the 2 August 1914.

The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) landed in France on 14 August. Its engineer units included:

• Bridging Train (1st, 2nd Bridging Trains).
• Field (5th, 11th, 17th, 23rd, 26th, 56th, 57th, 59th Field Companies, 1st Field Squadron, 4th Field Troop).
• Fortress (30th, 42nd Fortress Companies).
• Railway (RTE, 8th, 10th Railway Companies).
• Printing (1st Printing Company) - This was a Survey unit.
• Postal (BAPO, Advance BAPO, 1st, 2nd Stationary Post Office).
• Signals (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th, Signals Company, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th Signals Troops, A-F Airline Sections, F-P Cable Sections, Q Wireless Section) .
• Works (29th Works Company).

The BEF first saw action against the Germans at Mons, Belgium on 23 August, where they were protecting the northern flank of the French Army. The Allies (French and British) temporarily checked the German's advance, but overwhelming numbers forced them into retreat.

The British and French armies retreated south towards Paris, stopping to hold a line on the river Marne. During the subsequent battle of Marne, they collectively pushed the Germans back beyond the rivers of Aisne, Oise and Meuse. After that battle the BEF were withdrawn from the line and moved north, to secure a line between the river Yser and the Flanders town of Ypres, where they fought the last battle of 1914, the 1st battle of Ypres.

1914 - Divisional field engineering activities

Mons (23-26 August) - In the retreat from Mons the engineer field units were engaged in demolishing railway and road bridges. On 23 August 1914, Captain Theodore Wright and Lance Corporal Charles Jarvis (both of 57th Field Company) won Victoria Crosses for their actions demolishing bridges on the Mons-Condé canal.

The Mons-Condé canal 24 August 1914
Taken the day after Corporal Jarvis' VC action and shows the German bridge built
under fire from the Northumberland Fusiliers
(Photo: IWM Q70073)

During the retreat from Mons the rear area units were evacuated to the north west of France (St. Nazaire, Nantes and Le Mans).

Le Cateau (26 August) - At Le Cateau 59th Field Company had its first experience of infantry fighting.

Marne (6-12 september) - After the breakthrough and the subsequent advance to river Aisne the field engineers were engaged in repairing and constructing bridges over the rivers as the troops advanced.

1st Ypres (14 October - 22 November) - In the lead up to the 1st battle of Ypres engineer field units were billeted close behind the support line, they spent their days collecting materials and their nights carrying them forward to construct entanglements and other defences. On 11 November 5 Field Company won 7 DCMs in an action at Polygon Wood - see 5th Field Company at Polygon Wood

As autumn passed, the battle of Ypres died down and the Royal Engineers were employed without respite on improving the trenches, repairing roads, improving billets, and manufacturing all kinds of trench stores, makeshift bombs, grenades, periscopes and mortars. Nearly every field company had a bomb factory.

From September onwards more field units arrived in theatre: 2nd, 3rd Field Squadrons, 2nd, 7th, 9th, 12th, 15th, 38th, 54th, 55th Field Companies.

During November 1914 elements of the Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (1st, 4th Siege Companies, 3rd Railway Company) and Royal Anglesey Royal Engineers (1st, 2nd Siege Companies, 2nd Railway Company) began to arrive in theatre (both were Special Reserve units).

In December the first of the Territorial engineer field companies arrived in theatre: 1st Lowland, 1st East Anglian, 1st Cheshire, 1st (St Helens) West Lancashire, 1st and 2nd Home Counties, 1st London, 2nd Highland Field Companies.

1914 - Other Corps activities

• Royal Engineers Railway Transport Establishment (RTE)
  • At the outset of war they organised and coordinated the deployment of the BEF to France.
  • During the Retreat from Mons they organised evacuation of the rear areas to St. Nazaire, Nantes and Le Mans, and coordinated the movement of British troops and stores by rail with the French railway authorities.
  • They organised the transportation, by rail, of Indian Corps from Orleans to the neighbourhoods of Lillers, Merville and Berguette (26 October-27 November) and the movement of rear units from St. Nazaire, Nantes and Le Mans, back to northern France.
• Works
  • In August 1914 they established bases in Boulogne, Amiens, Le Havre and Rouen and set up Lines of Communication.
  • During the retreat they established bases in the north west of France at St. Nazaire, Nantes and Le Mans which remained open until January 1915.
  • In September they re-established bases at Boulogne, Le Havre and Rouen, with an advance base at Abbeville.
  • In December, Dieppe became a British military station.
• Signals
  • Established communications for BEF with telegraph connections back to England.
• Survey
  • They issued maps to troops on embarkation.
  • The accuracy of maps became important during the Retreat from Mons and thereafter surveys of northern France were made to improve them.
  • 1st Ranging Section was formed in November to assist the artillery to locate an enemy target, by fixing the position of an aeroplane signalling from a position vertically above the enemy target.
• Postal
  • Established Base Army Post Office at Le Havre, the advance Base Army Post Office at Amiens and the two Stationary Post Offices at Boulogne and Rouen.
  • Mails were exchanged between Le Havre and Southampton.
  • After the evacuation to north west France the Base Army Post Office opened in Nantes and the Advance Base Army Post Office at Le Mans.

1915 - The deadlock begins

1915 - Tactical overview - At the end of 1914 the Allied front began to settle on a relatively static line, that ran from Neuport in the north to Nancy in the south.

In March the British began an offensive on the German front lines, known as the battle of Neuve Chapelle, using the tactic of heavy artillery bombardment followed by an infantry assault, it had limited success.

On 22 April 1915 the Germans used poison gas for the first time, and the British launched their second attack (2nd battle of Ypres) in the Ypres area.

1915 - Divisional field engineering activities

Over the winter of 1914/15 constant shelling, and heavy traffic, caused so much damage to the roads in the area of the front, that they became almost impassable. This disrupted the supply route between the refilling points and front lines.

The divisional engineer field units were tasked with resolving the matter. Early in 1915 they devised a wooden 2ft gauge tramway, to carry stores and ammunition between the refilling points and the front line. The rails were made of 3in x 2in wood planks and the sleepers of 1in planking. The wheels for the trucks came from the mining area round Béthune, or from the factories of Armentières. By May 1915, the tramways were used to remove stretcher cases, and the spoil from tunnels.

Neuve Chapelle (10-15 March) - In the build-up to the battle of Neuve Chapelle, the tasks of the divisional engineer field units included:

Digging trenches and building breastworks for use as assembly places for attacking brigades. Construction of additional communication trenches. Building splinter-proof shelters for brigade headquarters and bomb depots. Laying wooden tramlines. Formation of advance depots for engineer stores.		Construction of ladders for assaulting troops to use to exit their trenches. Provision of light foot-bridges. Reconnaissance of ground. Cutting embrasures for machine-guns in front-line trenches. Issue of tools, sandbags etc to the infantry. Duckboards (or Trench mats) - were manufactured by Royal Engineers and came into general use during 1915.
Examples of shelters and duckboards built by the Royal Engineer field companies - 1917 (Photo: IWM)    Examples of trench ladders built by the Royal Engineer field companies -1917 (Photo: IWM)

Loos (25 September- 13 October) - Second Lieutenant Frederick Johnston (73rd Field Company) was awarded a Victoria Cross for his actions in leading a series of charges on a German redoubt at Loos on 25 September 1915.

1915 - Other Corps activities

• Tunnelling
  • In April 1915 tunnelling and mining to attack the enemy positions by tunnelling underneath them and then destroying them with mines was began. The German held Hill 60, an artificial mound adjoining the Ypres-Comines railway, about 2½ miles south of Ypres, became their first objective.
  • Tunnelling was begun by a mining section formed from Welsh miners of the 1st and 3rd Battalions Monmouthshire Regiment attached to the 1st Northumberland Field Company, Royal Engineers (TF).
• Gas
  • In response to the German gas attack of April 1915, the British deployed gas for the first time during the battle of Loos on 25 September 1915. The gas was dispensed by the 'Special Companies' (186th, 187th, 188th, 189th) raised especially for this type of warfare.
  • On 13 October 1915, Corporal James Dawson (187th Special Company) was awarded a Victoria Cross for preventing men from being 'gassed' by faulty gas cylinders.

• Searchlights
  • Searchlight units were deployed to Abbeville, Etaples and Abancourt to provide lighting for air defence.
  • In August 1915 experiments were conducted to illuminate no-mans land with oxyacetylene lamps.
• Works
  • Early in 1915 Etaples became a reinforcement camp and hospital base.
  • In March, 6 x Territorial RE, Fortress companies were in theatre.
  • In May, the port of Calais was taken into use.
  • Other centres opened at Abancourt (supply depot), Le Tréport, Fécamp, Etretat and Pont de L'Aube (hospitals).
  • Shipping berths were constructed at Rouen, Boulogne and Dunkirk.
  • Aerodromes were built for the Royal Flying Corps (RFC).

• Signals
  • In December 1915 the Royal Engineers Army Pigeon Service was formed on its transfer from the Intelligence Section.
• Railway
  • By the summer of 1915 11 x British Railway Construction Companies were in service in France.
  • Railway construction led to the doubling of the Hazebrouch-Poperinghe line; building of new line from Candas to Acheax, sidings at Abbeville, Calais and Blarges - in all 105 miles of track was laid.
• Inland Water Transport
  • Barges were used to carry bulky traffic of no great urgency, travelling along the rivers and canals.
  • Barges were fitted out with water pumping and water filtering installations.
  • Barges were fitted out to carry the wounded.
• Postal
  • In January a second Base Army Post Office was opened at Boulogne and a packet service was established between Boulogne and Folkestone, Kent. This had the effect of providing a 12 hrs service from London to the the BEF Headquarters, and 24-48 hrs service to the majority of the front line.
  • In June a third Base Army Post Office was opened at Calais.
  • The in-theatre cross-post system was revised and improved.
• Survey
  • During the build-up to the battle of Neuve Chapelle aerial photography was, for the first time, used to make topographic studies of the battle area.
  • Sound Ranging (locating enemy artillery by sound) was introduced in October 1915.
• Water
  • In May 1915 a Water Supply Committee was established (members were Royal Engineers and Royal Army Medical Corps officers). They laid down scales for the supply of water to men and animals.
  • Boring for water began.

1916 - The Somme and the deadlock continues

1916 - Tactical overview - On 21 February 1916 the Germans launched a ferocious offensive on the French at Verdun, which continued until November. The French appealed to the British to counter-attack the Germans to relieve the pressure, because the Germans were 'bleeding their [French] army white'.

1916 - Divisional field engineering activities

Somme (1 July to 18 November) - The preparation for the battle of the Somme for the field engineers was much the same as in previous battles.

It was in the rear areas that the work of the engineers was different and varied. Army Troops and rear engineers unit were heavily involved in:

• Improving the rail and road links to the front.
• Ensuring that there were sufficient supplies of water for the troops.
• Constructing accommodation for the concentration of the troops, in this, the invention of the Nissen hut, by Major Peter Nissen, Royal Engineers helped, although most accommodation was a wooden framed hut covered by tarpaulins erected by the Royal Engineers.

1916 - Other Corps activities

• Gas
  • The Livens Projector was used during the battle of the Somme to launch gas cylinders on the German lines. It was devised by Captain FH Livens, Royal Engineers, and consisted of a steel tube capable of firing a 30lbs phosgene bomb.
  • In February 1916 a box respirator was issued to the Special Companies.
• Works
  • 1st Base Park Company was established at Attaques and Calais.
  • 24th Base Park Company was established at Abancourt and Rouen.
  • 32nd Base Park Company was established at Le Havre.
• Camouflage
  • The first Camouflage unit was set up on 22 March 1916 in Amiens under the title 'Special Works Park RE'.
  • In June another factory opened at Aire, France.
  • They built and painted covers to hide guns, created camouflage netting, built and painted observation posts to look like trees, parts of trenches etc.
  • The whole unit was disbanded in 1918.
• Quarry
  • 2 Quarry companies were raised and deployed in France to quarry hardcore for road repair and construction.
• Tunnelling
  • The tunnellers were heavily committed tunnelling under German lines and laying mines.
  • Tunnelling companies also built underground bunkers to shelter the troops an example was the 'Vampire' shelter constructed by 171 Tunnelling Company RE
  • On 22 June 1916 Sapper William Hackett of 254 Tunnelling Company was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross.

Sapper William Hackett VC (254 Tunnelling Company, Royal Engineers) 22 June 1916 Whilst in a tunnel at Givenchy, an explosion of an enemy mine caused the gallery to collapse trapping Sapper Hackett and four others. After working for 20 hours a hole was made through the fallen earth, and three of the party made good their escape. But Hackett refused to leave the fourth, who was seriously wounded, saying "I am a tunneller and must look after the others first". There was a further earth fall, and although the rescue party worked desperately for four days, all attempts to reach the two men failed. They could only leave Hackett and the wounded man to their fate entombed in the earth. William Hackett was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross "well knowing the nature of sliding earth, and the chances against him, deliberately gave his life for his comrade".

• Survey
  • At the beginning of the year the topographical sections became Field Survey Companies and schools were established to teach 'Sound Ranging' and 'Flash Spotting' techniques.
  • Development of artillery surveys continued, and the idea of 'Flash Spotting' was further developed. The continual and accurate observation of the front was carried out by the Artillery Survey Section.
• Inland Water Transport
  • In January 1916 a cross-Channel barge ferry service opened between Richborough, Kent and Calais.
  • By September 1916 the Inland Water Transport consisted of 58 tugs and 590 barges with a carrying capacity of 76,000 tons.

• Postal
  • As a security measure (in June 1916) Field Post Office date stamps that were used to cancel the mail were exchanged between Field Post Offices to ensure that if any British mail was captured by the Germans it could not be used to identify units and formations (as was possible with captured German mail). This security measure continued to the end of the war.
• Searchlights
  • Searchlight units were used in an air defence role in the rear of the forward battle areas during the battle of the Somme.
• Signals
  • The Fullerphone, invented by Captain (later Major General) AC Fuller, Royal Engineers came into service. It was designed to overcome 'eavesdropping' by the enemy. The Fullerphone remained in service until the 1950's.
• Water
  • By 1 July 1916 the engineers had, in the Fourth Army area, established 100 water power pumps and laid almost 120 miles of water mains. 126,000 gallons of water storage had be established in the forward areas.

1917 - Stalemate

1917 - Tactical overview - January 1917 brought little hope for the Allies as the British were still recovering from the battle of the Somme and French from their ordeal at Verdun. In March the German's made a tactical withdrawal to better consolidate their defences. On the 6 April the French began their Nivelle offensive on the Aisne, which ended in failure and in its wake mutinies broke out amongst French units in May 1917.

On the 9 April the British and Canadians launch what has become known as the battle of Arras during which they captured Vimy Ridge.

On 25 June the advance parties of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) arrived in France.

A third attack was launched at the end of July with the objective of capturing the Passchendaele Ridge.

Tanks were used for the first time in the last British attack of the year at Cambrai, but the momentum of the attack was soon lost through a lack of reserves, thus ended another disappointing year for the Allies.

1917 - Divisional field engineering activities

During the German withdrawal in March, the field engineers were engaged constructing bridges to assist the British forces to move forward to occupy the vacant trenches, which the engineers then reinforced.

The tramways were upgraded to light railways and their management given over to a Director of Light Railways.

Messines (7 - 14 June) - The Royal Engineer Tunnellers were heavily engaged in the preparations for the battle of Messines, which was begun by the explosion of 19 gigantic mines laid by them. The explosions were designed to destroy the German's front-line defences on a wide sector, and to demoralize their front-line garrisons.

3rd Ypres (31 July - 10 November) - During the 3rd battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) the field engineers were engaged in; improving the lines of communication, duck-boarding tracks, bridging streams, constructing mule tracks, building advanced field dressing-stations, building divisional unit battle headquarters and building cover for field guns, screening roads in exposed places, clearing blocked streams, removing obstacles from the path of tanks, destroying bogged down tanks, hauling guns from the mire, and laying tape to guide infantry units forward. The task of extending water pipelines became impractical so the engineers had to construct water storage tanks by the road side at which water could be collected in petrol cans and carried forward.

Cambrai (20 November - 7 December) - The battle of Cambrai was the first battle at which tanks were deployed in earnest, although they had been deployed during the 3rd battle of Ypres, they had only been so in an experimental capacity and contrary to the advice of the Tank Corps Commander, the engineer Brigadier General (later General Sir) Hugh Elles.

Tanks moving forward with infantry in close support - 1917
(Photo: IWM)

In this first major tank battle Elles advanced in the leading tank and led the newly formed Tank Corps to a great victory that once and for all settled the controversy upon the value of tanks and establishing them as a new arm in war. However, it was unfortunate that the British had insufficient reserves to exploit the gains made by the tanks.

Tanks and the Royal Engineers Elles Royal Engineer officers were heavily involved in the development of the tank during the First World War (1914-18). Colonel (later Major General Sir) Ernest Swinton was Secretary of the War Committee that conceived the idea of tracked armoured vehicles and it was he who christened the vehicle - the 'tank'. The name was intended to be deceptive for security reasons. It was the engineer Colonel (later General Sir) Hugh Elles (1880-1945), who was selected to command the 'Heavy Section', Machine Gun Corps, which became the Tank Corps in May 1917. Swinton

• Forward Zone - consisting of the firing line, support line and communication trenches; the maintenance of the fabric of these trenches became the responsibility of the divisional field engineers.
• Battle Zone - was an area sufficiently in rear of the Forward Zone to allow artillery fire to be brought to bear on the enemy if he broke through the former, and it came under the supervision of corps engineers (army troop companies, tunnelling companies assisted by labour companies and entrenching battalions).
• Rear Zone - was an area about 4-8 miles behind the Battle Zone and also came under the supervision of corps engineers (army troop companies, tunnelling companies assisted by labour companies and entrenching battalions).

1917 - Other Corps activities

• Tunnellers
  • Messines mine (see above).
  • Underground shelters.
• Searchlights
  • An Inspector of Searchlights was appointed.
  • The Sections were organised and expanded to provide anti-aircraft lighting to protect bases, ports and railway installations.
• Railway Transport Establishment
  • On 28 June 1917 an overland service opened from Cherbourg through Modane and Italy to Taranto on the Adriatic to serve the Italian, the Macedonian and Middle East theatres of war.
• Signals
  • In May members of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) were employed as Telegraph clerks in the rear area Telegraph Offices.
  • Signalling lamps used during the battle of Arras.
• Forestry
  • 5 x Forestry companies were raised and deployed in France.
• Postal
  • In May members of the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) were employed as Postal clerks in the rear area Base Army Post Offices and stationary Post Offices.

1918 - A setback and the final break through

1918 - Tactical overview - The Germans spent the winter of 1917/18 moving their troops from their Eastern Front to the Western Front , where they prepared for a major offensive. It began on 21 March under the operational name of 'Michael' but is more usually known as their 'Spring Offensive'. They used the tactics of storm troops which took the Allies by surprise and they managed to break through the Allies' lines only to be halted before Amiens where the Allies were able to impose a crushing defeat on the then spent German army.

1918 - Divisional field engineering activities

In the new year of 1918 there was some indication that the Germans were preparing to launch an offensive so the engineers attended to the defences of their respective Zones of responsibility. The defensive measures included: the preparation of all bridges for demolition, and their numbering both on the ground and on maps; storing of the charges in chambers close at hand and the telling off of firing parties, felling trees across roads, (the mining of road junctions and causeways, was omitted because it was considered more important that the tunnelling companies spend time making deep dugouts).

Spring Offensive (21 March - June) - After the German offensive began on 21 March the engineer units demolished the bridges in the Forward Zone much of them under the cover of thick fog. Some of the bridges were also demolished in the Battle and Rear Zones. All units in the Forward and Battle zones got caught up in the fighting.

At Oxelaere, on 22 March 1918, Second Lieutenant Cecil Knox (150 Field Company) was entrusted with the demolition of 12 bridges to hamper the German advance. In the case of one of the steel girder bridges the fuse failed. Knox under heavy fire managed to detonate the explosives and was awarded a Victoria Cross for his devotion to duty.

On the 25 March a composite force of technical engineer units (144th, 213th, 216th and 217th Army Troop Companies, 243rd Tunnelling Company, 253rd Electrical and Mechanical Company, No 4 Workshops Company, 5th Survey Battalion, two companies of 6th Regiment US Engineers and a detachment Fifth Army Signals) was gathered together to provide a defence for Amiens, the force was known as 'Carey's Force'. It and other composite forces held the line and helped to stabilise the situation in the Amiens area.

The German advance spent itself at the gates of Amiens and by May and their fortunes were suddenly reserved.

The Allies advance (The last hundred days) (8 August - 11 November) - In the advance through the Hindenburg Line and on towards Germany the divisional and Army Troop engineers were deeply involved in assisting the armies to move forward, their work included road and rail repair, reconstructing bridges across rivers and canals.

In October while the Field squadrons were awaiting to accompany their cavalry divisions forward they were engaged in the establishment of water points, filling in road craters, making diversions and searching for mines and traps.

During the advance east the BEF found that the Sambre-Oise Canal formed a considerable obstacle. During the two days of 4-6 November 1918 four Victoria Crosses were awarded to engineers (Corporal Archibald, Major Cloutman, Major Findlay and Major Waters) for laying bridges across the canal.

1918 - Other Corps activities

• Gas - the Special Companies continued to administer gas attacks throughout the year.
  
  
• Water
  • In August water had to be provided for an estimated 600,000 men and 300,000 animals. Transport lorries and GS (General Service) wagons were fitted with water storage tanks and accompanied the armies in their advance.
  • An estimated 20 million gallons of water were transported by road during the advance.
• Survey
  • Produced and distributed maps containing water supply information.

• Searchlights
  • Continued to provide anti-aircraft lighting to protect bases, ports and railway installations, particularly as the nightly bombing intensified.
  • After the Armistice the Anti-Aircraft searchlight sections were used to illuminate work during the reconstruction of demolished bridges and railways.

• Signals
  • By 1918 the telephone was the main means of communication on the Western Front.
• Works
  • During the first quarter of the year Royal Engineer stores passed out of the Royal Engineer Store Yards at a rate of 140,000 tons per month.

• Postal
  • Forward Field Post Offices were over run during the German Spring Offensive.
  • In June the Base Army Post Office at Calais was destroyed by enemy bombing.

Italian Front - 1917-18

Tactical overview - On 24 October 1917, after a heavy shell and gas bombardment a combined Austro-German force attacked Italian troops in the upper valley of the Isonzo. The Italian forces broke and retreated 40 miles west, across the River Tagliamento to the River Piave. The Italian Government immediately requested Allied help.

An Anglo-French force, consisting of the British XIV Corps (23rd and 41st Divisions),was despatched to Italy and began to arrive on 11 November 1917. On the 13th, General Sir Herbert Plumer arrived and assumed command of the British forces in Italy. Further Divisions (5th, 7th, and 48th) joined the force, as did XI Corps headquarters. The XI Corps headquarters, 5th and 41st Divisions returned to France in February 1918.

In June 1918 the Austrians attacked along the Asiago plateau, but were repulsed. Late in October, British forces attacked along the Piave and succeeded in pushing the enemy back to the Vittorio Veneto area, pressure was maintained until an Armistice was called by the defeated Austrians early in November 1918. By then, units of the British Army had also advanced into the Trentino area and were the first such troops to enter the home soil of a European enemy during the war.

The engineers to accompany this force were:

• 59th, 491st (Home Counties) and 527th (Durham) Field Companies (5 Division)
• 474th, 475th, 477th Field Companies (48 Division)
• 54th, 95th and 528th (Durham) Field Companies (7 Division)
• 101st, 102nd, 128th Field Companies (23 Division)
• 228th, 233rd and 237th Field Companies (41 Division)
• 158th, 285th, 290th and 8th (monmouth) Army Troops Companies (LofC)
• 246 Base Park Company, dets 32 Base Park Depot, 5th Pontoon Park, 13th Reinforcement Company (LofC)
• 6th Field Survey Company (LofC)
• 34th AA Searchlight Section
• Signals and Postal units

Divisional field engineering activities

During the June 1918 Austrian offensive the field companies were caught up in the fighting and the 474th and 477th Field Companies were used to hold sectors of the British line. In August, during a British attack, searchlights were used to produce artificial moonlight across the battle field.

As part of the British offensive across the Piave river the field engineers (54th, 95th, 528th (Durham), 128th Field Companies (and later 101st) were required to construct a pontoon bridge from the mainland to the Island of Papadopoli in the Piave river. Work began on 24 October 1918 and was completed three days later. The engineers were also employed with all movements connected with the crossings by ferry and footbridges.

During the pursuit after the crossing of the Piave the 474th and 475th Field Companies made the routes up onto the Asiago plateau passable for wheeled vehicles. At Sacile the 285th Army Troop Comany constructed an Inglis girder bridge.

Other Corps activity

• Survey
  • British Surveys on the Italian front began in November 1917.


• Works
  • Arquata Scrivia was selected as the Base area for the Expeditionary Force and a RE Stores Depot was established there.
  • The port of Genoa was used for stores coming by sea, but very few engineer stores came that way.

• Transportation
  • Railway operating and road and railway construction was arranged through the Italian Army Transportation Directorate.
  • A small detachment of Royal Engineers were responsible for maintaining the British-built rolling stock used as hospital trains.


• Postal
  • Divisional FPOs accommpanied their respective Dvisions.
  • Initially there were delays in the mails arising from congestion on the railways, so it was arranged that mails passed through France on an express service to Modane and that a special Travelling Post Office (TPO) operated between Modane and Padua, where the British GHQ was located.

Middle East and the Balkans 1914-1919

Background - In 1914 Egypt was under Turkish (Ottoman Empire) suzerainty, but had in fact been governed by Britain since 1882 (see Egyptian Expedition 1882). Egypt was strategically important to Britain and its Empire because it occupied the land bridge between Asia and Africa and was traversed by the Suez Canal, which formed a vital link in the Empire's sea route between Britain and her colonies and dominions in the East (e.g. India, Hong Kong, Australia and New Zealand). Its importance was further enhanced in 1908 when oil was discovered in Mesopotamia (now Iraq) and the Persian Gulf.

Turkey (Ottoman Empire) declared its support for the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria) on 29 October 1914. Turkey's assistance in the bombardment of Russia ports on the Black Sea forced the Allies (Britain, France and Russia) to declare war on Turkey on 5 November 1914.

All these reasons led to the decision that Egypt be established as a base for British troops operating in the Middle East and from which the Egyptian Expeditionary Force (1916-1918) grew and following expeditions were supplied:

• 1915-16 - Gallipoli Expedition - Dardanelles
• 1915-18 - Salonika Expedition - The Balkans
• 1915-17 - Senussi Campaign - Western Egypt
• 1916-19 - Palestine Campaign

Military Base, Egypt 1914-1919

1914 - Establishing the Military Base - Egypt

In August 1914 the engineers in Egypt consisted of:

• A small Works staff, under Colonel HBH Wright (Chief Engineer). He was appointed Engineer-in-Chief, Egypt and Palestine in 1916.
• 2nd Field Company

The Royal Engineers provided accommodation for troops arriving in theatre with assistance from the Egyptian Public Works Department. Camps were built at Ismailia, Suez, Port Said and other locations along the Canal.

During the winter of 1914-15 it became obvious that the eastern frontier of Egypt and the Suez Canal zone, which adjoined territory of the Ottoman Empire, required protection. 42 Division and the Indian Expeditionary Force (10 and 11 Divisions) were charged with its defence. Divisions from Australia and New Zealand (ANZAC) later joined them.

The engineers of these divisions were tasked with the defence works of these areas, which consisted of a series of fortified bridgeheads covering floating bridges. At each beachhead detached trenches revetted with sandbags and covered by wire were constructed. A few electrically fired land mines were built into the inner defences of the beachhead at Ismailia. A small airfield was prepared at Moascar and searchlights installed along the Suez Canal.

Still under development

Gallipoli Expedition - 1915-16

Tactical overview - The campaign took place between 25 April 1915 and 9 January 1916. The offensive's ultimate aim was to push through the Dardanelles straits and capture Constantinople, the Turkish capital. If a breakthrough had been achieved, the Turks, who were allied with Austria and Germany (the Central Powers), would have been unable to prevent Britain and France from joining the Russians in the war against Austria-Hungary and Turkey.

After a failed bombardment of the Turkish forts at the Dardanelles by the British and French navies it was decided that the capture of the Gallipoli peninsula should be done by land forces. The forces chosen were: the British 29th Division (commanded by the engineer Lieutenant General Sir Aylmer Hunter-Weston), and divisions from Australia and New Zealand (ANZAC). The attack began on the 25 April 1915 established two beachheads at Cape Helles and Gaba Tepe (ANZAC). Another major landing took place at Sulva Bay on 6 August 1915. However, attempts to sweep across the peninsula ended in failure. By the end of August the Allies had lost over 40,000 men. General Ian Hamilton (1853-1947), Commander-in-Chief of the expedition asked for another 95,000 men, but although his request was supported by Winston Churchill (1874-1965), Kitchener was unwilling to send more troops to the area.

On 14 October 1915, Hamilton was replaced by General Sir Charles Munro (1860-1929). After touring all three fronts Munro recommended withdrawal. Lord Kitchener, who arrived two weeks later, agreed that the 105,000 men already on the peninsula should be evacuated. The evacuation operation began at Sulva Bay on 7th December. The last of the men left Helles beaches on 9 January 1916.

About 480,000 Allied troops took part in the Gallipoli campaign. The British suffered 205,000 casualties (43,000 killed). There were more than 33,600 ANZAC losses (over one-third killed) and 47,000 French casualties (5,000 killed). Turkish casualties are estimated at 250,000 (65,000 killed).

Command of the engineers

Brigadier-General AW Roper was appointed 'Technical Adviser to the Commander-in-Chief' but was not present when Hamilton was planning the operation from the island of Lemnos. Indeed no British engineer officer in a technical capacity was present at any of the planning stages.

Mudros Bay, Lemnos - Expedition's Advance Base

Mudros Bay was chosen as the Advance Base for the force, but as a base it was very under developed. There were no adequate piers and wharves, no roads, no light railways, few buildings and a scant water supply. The engineers who were tasked (13th Base Park Company and 1/3rd (Lancashire) Workshop Company) with the establishment of the base were also hampered by the shortage of stores, skilled labour and an inappropriate command structure. The original companies detailed with the development were later joined by four Army Troop companies and the 117th Railway Company.

By the end of December 1915 the following had been achieved:

• 7 x piers had been constructed and a further seven were under construction.
• 1 x General hospital (1,040 beds), 2 x stationary hospitals (624 beds each), 1 x infectious hospital had been constructed.
• A railway connecting the piers, camps and hospital had been constructed.
• A water condensing plant (33,000 gallons a day) was operational.

In May 1915 the General Headquarters (GHQ) was established on the Island of Imbros where it remained until the evacuation (January 1916). The 1/3rd (Lancashire) Workshop Company setup a small advance workshop on the island.

Cape Helles Front - April 1915- January 1916

The Landings - April 1915

The landing by a force 35,000 men (29th Division) at Cape Helles on the Gallipoli peninsula 's southern tip took place at five locations ('S', 'V','W', 'X', and 'Y', Beaches).

The engineers of 29th Division involved were:

• S beach - 1/2nd London Field Company
• V beach - 1/1st West Riding Field Company
• W beach - 2/2nd Lowland Field Company

Their tasks were to tackle the very formidable Turkish wire entanglements, to construct a causeway for guns.

On the first night of the landings the engineers, whilst under constant fire and with only the light of flares also assembled several barrel piers, dug wells, and constructed a light trestle bridge.

Formation of VIII corps - July 1915

In July 1915 all troops ashore at Helles were formed into VIII Corps under command of the engineer Major General Sir Aylmer Hunter-Weston. The Corps' engineers were:

• 29th Division - 1/2nd London, 1/1st West Riding, 2/2nd Lowland Field Companies.
• Royal Naval Division - 1st, 2nd, 3rd Field Companies
• 42nd Division - 1st (later 427th), 2nd (later 428th) East Lancashire Field Companies.
• 52nd (Lowland) Division - 2/1st, 1/2nd Lowland Field Companies.
• Corps Troops - 13th Base Park Company, 254th Tunnelling Company and a Postal unit.

On the beaches the engineers continued to construct and repair piers damaged by stormy seas. They also dug shelters to protect those on the beaches. They laid causeways and a decauville (narrow gauge railway) across the beaches. A Steam Tractor was used to haul in timber from sunken barges.

The 1/1st West Riding Field Company supervised the construction of an artillery road to the front, which ran four miles inland. At the front the engineers constructed redoubts within 80 yds of the Turkish trenches, they also manufactured bombs, built shell proof shelters and laid much of the wire in no-man's land. In June 1915 the 254th Tunnelling Company was tasked with the execution of the 29th Division mining offensive.

During the offensives against the Turks the engineers who followed close behind the assault troops were engaged in converting capture trenches for British use. They also constructed bridges over trenches to carry guns much in the same way as their counterparts did on the Western Front.

The evacuation - 7-9 January 1916

In preparation for the final evacuation the engineers constructed defences to cover the beaches, this was done with help from the infantry. The engineers also blocked all the communication trenches that there were not to be used during the evacuation and carefully marked those that were to be used.

The piers on 'W' and 'V' beaches were used to evacuate troops into K lighters, which ferried them out to the waiting battleships. The engineers were detailed to stayed to the end to repair damage to any of the piers.

ANZAC (Ari Burnu) Front - April-December 1915

15km north from Cape Helles, on the Aegean coast of the Gallipoli peninsula, the Australian and New Zealand Corps (ANZAC) comprising 17,000 men were landed at Ari Burnu ('Z Beach'), 1.5km north of Gaba Tepe (where the landing was actually intended). French troops were also part of this force. The ANZAC were accompanied by their own engineers; their tasks and experiences were the same as of those of the Royal Engineers.

Suvla Bay Front - August-December 1915

The Landings - August 1915

The landings of the IX Corps (10th, 11th and 53rd Divisions) at Suvla Bay ('A', 'B' and 'C' beaches) begun on the evening of 6 August and ended on 9 August. The field engineers involved were:

• 10th Division - 65th, 66th, 85th Field Companies (landed 7 August 1915).
• 11th Division - 67th, 68th and 86th Field Companies (landed 6 August 1915).
• 53rd (Welsh) Division - 1st Welsh, 2/1st and 2/2nd Cheshire Field Companies (landed 9-11 August 1915).

So fierce was their reception that they were engaged in fighting in an infantry role, as well as having to carry out they usual tasks of constructing shelters, sangars (stone breastworks) and trenches, improving paths and the water supply. The Official Corps history records:

"No account of the landings at Suvla gives a true picture if it omits reference to the prevalence among these young troops of dysentery. To be thrown into battle for the first time on an unknown desert shore was a fierce enough ordeal for the vanguard of Kitchener's New Army. Yet these men were called upon to march, often in the clutches of a weakening disease. These were officers and men of whom our Corps may well be proud."

As on the other landing beaches the engineers constructed piers - eleven in all.

ANZAC and Suvla evacuation - 7-19 December 1915

A description of the engineers work in the preparation for the evacuation was reported in The Times: "…the work of the sappers was to impede their [the Turks] advance in case they did find out [about our intensions to evacuate] and go for us. The [engineer] officers and men went out at night between our parapets and those of the enemy, which were only a few yards apart, putting up wire and laying down land mines - jumpy work, especially as the last few days the waning moon made it a close business whether we could finish the job or not…"

Thanks to the work of the engineers, who constructed the defences, roads and bridges as well as maintained the piers a total of 83,048 officers and men, 186 guns, nearly 2,000 vehicles and 4.695 horses and mules were successfully evacuated from the ANZAC and Suvla beaches.

Other Corps activities

• Survey
  • Although plans were to take a field survey section with the expedition in the end none were taken.
  • A map for the attack was hastily constructed by the Geographicl Section, but it contain inaccuracies which caused many difficulties.
  • After the landings a map was found on a captured Turkish officer which was sent to the Survey of Egypt where it was reproduced for distribution.
  • A Map and Printing Section was sent to Mudros late in 1915.

• Postal
  • A Base Army Post Office was established at Mudros, mail to and from home was despatched via Alexandria, Egypt.
  • Field Post Offices accompanied the formations on the Gallipoli Peninsula and mails were exchanged daily between them and the Base Army Post Office at Mudros.

Senussi Campaign 1915-17

Tactical overview - In the autumn 1915 the Senussi, a Muslim sect that lived on the Libyan/Egyptian borders, declared a jihad (a holy war) against the Allies and pursued a military campaign in the Egyptian Western Desert. A small force called the Western Frontier Force, was assembled at Matruh, Egypt to counter-attack the Senussi. The campaign which was fought on the western borders of Egypt was very fluid and continued until April 1917.

The engineers involved were:

• 1/1st and 1/2nd Kent Field Companies - They constructed roads, defences, water supply and a pier at Sollum.
• 2/1st Cheshire Field Company (released November 1916) - They took over a pontoon bridge at Bahr YUsuf and replaced it with a barrel pier bridge. Before they left the theatre they bore water holes to supply the railway.
• 1/1st Welsh Field Company (53rd Division) - They built a road between El Alamein and Moghara complete with blockhouses. They were replaced by 37th Army Troops Company (May 1916).
• 5th Royal Anglesey Militia (replaced 37th Army Troops Company) - They worked on the Baharia railway set up a water suplly system that supplied 180,000 gallons per week, built a 100 ft span pontoon bridge over the Bahr Yusuf west of Samalut, and constructed blockhouses. They left the theatre in April 1917.

The Royal Engineers contributed in no small measure to the removal of the threat to Egypt's security from the west. Throughout these operations they were confronted with the problems of inadequate supplies and inexperienced troops all of which had to be administrated over vast areas.

Salonika Campaign 1915-18

Still under development

Palestine Campaign - 1916-18

Still under development

Mesopotamia Campaign - 1916-18

Still under development

West and East African Campaigns - 1914-18

Still under development

History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol V, VI, VII (Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham, 1952)

A Short History. The Royal Engineers. Compiled by Maj DP Aston RE (Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham, 1993)

Follow the Sapper. Napier G (Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham, 2005)

The Oxford Illustrated History of the British Army Ed: Chandler D, Beckett I (OUP, Oxford, 1994)

A Short History of the British Army Sheppard EW (Constable, London, 1950)