The Engineers and the Peninsular War (1808-14)

Setting the scene - 1807

In 1807 the Spanish government was forced by Napoleon Bonaparte to allow a French army to pass through Spain to occupy Portugal. The government of Portugal called upon England, its oldest ally for assistance. The escape of the Portuguese Royal family and the fleet to Brazil under the protection of the British Royal Navy was covered by the previously Sicilian-based British Army under the command of Lieutenant General Sir John Moore. In December 1807 Moore returned to London leaving a token force in Lisbon to face the French army of occupation commanded by General Junot.

Map of the Peninsular War - 1808-14

Map of the Peninsular War (1808-14)

Vimeiro to Corunna - 1808

Britain's response to the Spanish treaty was to send a force to Lisbon in the summer of 1808. The force was initially under the command of Lieutenant General Sir Arthur Wellesley. The Engineers who accompanied the force were: Captain H Elphinstone (Commanding Engineer), Second Captain P Patton, Lieutenants JA Williams, R Boteler, JN Wells and T English. They were later joined by Captain G Landmann and Lieutenants E Mulcaster and C Mercer. At this time the Royal Engineers were small 'officer only' corps, who supervised military engineering works, any labour required was provided by the soldiers of the army or local civilians, later in the war they were supplemented by the deployment of the Corps of Royal Military Artificers from Britain.

There was some expectation that Wellesley would be superseded by Moore (senior to Wellesley) whose army was sailing from Sweden via Portsmouth to Portugal. Much to everyone’s surprise General Dalrymple (then Governor of Gibraltar) and General Burrard were appointed to respectively oversee political and military matters. Wellesley, arriving ahead of the Generals, on being made aware of the position of Junot’s force took the initiative. After landing at Mondego Bay on 1 August Wellesley attacked and beat the French at Rolica on 17 August, the Engineers who were present at the battle were; Elphinstone, Landmann, English, Wells and Mulcaster. During the battle Captain H Elphinstone, who was the Commanding Engineer, was shot though the mouth and later evacuated back to Britain.

Battle of Vimeiro (21 August 1808) - A few days later the French attacked Wellesley's force, now camped at Vimeiro, and in the ensuing battle were decisively beaten, Burrard, arriving in time to claim credit. During the course of the battle a Royal Engineer on Wellesley's staff, Captain E Mulcaster RE, drew the General's attention to a group of enemy riflemen who were creeping up the hill towards Wellesley and his staff. Wellesley noted his comment but turned his attention elsewhere. Mulcaster again drew attention to the riflemen, Wellesley responded abruptly 'Very well sir, go then with such dragoons as you can gather, and drive them back'. Mulcaster seeing no cavalry to hand on his own initiative took command of some dragoon orderlies nearby and together they charged the riflemen clearing them from the slope. Lieutenant Wells RE was taken prisoner and marched off to be interviewed by the French Commander, Junot, who later invited him to dine with him. Wells was released after the convention of Cintra. Captain G Landmann RE, who was attached to Fane's brigade, successfully captured a French gun with Brigadier General Fane. At the conclusion of this action Fane picked up a long green feather from the ground and handed it to Landmann saying 'There, my boy, wear that feather; you have rendered yourself worthy of being a light infantry man'.

Photo 1 - Mouth of river Maceira where Moore's force landed in 1808 (Photo: MW Stoneham)

A naval force with transportation vessels under the command of Dalrymple arrived the following day (22 August 1808) carrying Lieutenant General Sir John Moore and his army of 11,000 men. They come ashore at the mouth of the river Maceira (Photo 1- left) a few days later among them were the Royal Engineers officers; Captain J Squire, Second Captain JF Burgoyne, Lieutenants C Boothby, F Stanway, W Forster and WD Smith.

Convention of Cintra (August 1808) - Junot sought terms of surrender which included transport to France of his army with its equipment and loot. Despite such terms having caused considerable anger in Britain when the French army in Egypt were previously granted them the Convention of Cintra was concluded on this basis on 30 August. Wellesley, usually quite politically astute, did not read the document and signed it alongside his more senior colleagues Generals Dalrymple and Burrall. Moore sensibly avoided doing so.

The French force of some 24,000 was, therefore, to the fury of the British Parliament and public, returned to a most grateful Napoleon. Dalrymple was summarily recalled to London to explain himself, Burrard followed. The British army was now encamped outside Lisbon where Wellesley met Moore for the first time. Wellesley returned to London to campaign for the appointment of Moore to command the British force. The extent of his influence is not clear as Moore's appointment was announced whilst Wellesley was still at sea. The government held a military enquiry into the Convention and Generals Dalrymple and Burrall were never to hold military command again. Fortunately Wellesley's career although tarnished was not ended by this lapse on his part.

Moore's advance into Spain - Usually the winter weather brought campaigning to a halt because the bad weather made the roads, which were little more than cart tracks, impassable and limited the amount of food and fodder available to an army that tended to live off the land. Mounted units in particular needed large amounts of fodder for the horses. Despite this Moore left Lisbon on 18 October with a force of 20,000 to march on Burgos in the north central Spain. Major R Fletcher was Commanding Engineer and had with him; Captain J Squire, Second Captain JF Burgoyne, Lieutenants R Boteler, JN Wells, E Mulcaster, C Boothby, F Stanway, Hutchinson, W Forster, WD Smith and T English, they were later joined by Captain JC Smyth, C Lefebure, and JF Birch; Second Captain JT Jones and F Fyers; Lieutenant A Cheyne. Moore was to be joined by a force of 10,000 coming from England to the Spanish port of Corunna under the command of Major General Sir David Baird. With Baird was Captain CW Pasley and two other Royal Engineers (Lieutenants FA Yorke and H Davy). Moore's artillery and cavalry proceeded into Spain on the longer southerly route by way Badajoz under the command of Lieutenant General Sir John Hope. The remainder of the force went via Ciudad Rodrigo a more direct northerly route allegedly supposedly impassable to artillery. Moore's plan was that all of his forces would consolidate at Salamanca.

On 13 November Moore was at Salamanca and Hope joined him on 8 December. Baird had deployed to Astorga some distance to the north. Moore was aware of Napoleon's invasion of Spain and fact that the Spanish Army had disintegrated in the face of the French army which was, so far as Moore knew, well on its the way to Madrid. Moore decided, against the opposition of the Spanish government and the British Ambassador in Madrid, not to advance on Burgos but to retire to the north linking up with Baird's force of 30,000 men. He was unaware at this point that Napoleon with a force of some 80,000 of his 250,000 strong army was already marching north from Madrid towards him. On Christmas Eve 1808 Moore's forces joined Baird's at Mayorga.

Moore’s Retreat to Corunna (January 1809) - At the end of the year Moore found himself caught between Napoleon's army marching up from the south and Soult's army of 16,000 to closing in from his north east. Thus began the long and arduous retreat of Moore's army to Corunna some 200 miles away drawing behind it the French forces under the command of Marshal Soult. The French were to suffer at the hands of the Spanish guerrillas during their pursuit of Moore's army. At Astorga Moore ordered Brigadier General Crauford's Light Division and Major General Count Alten's Kings German Legion west to the port of Vigo. Captain JF Burgoyne and Lieutenant Hutchinson were detached to Crauford's Light Division, Burgoyne's orders were to report on Vigo's suitability was a port of embarkation. Fletcher, who with the other Engineers remained with Moore's army, was sent on a similar mission to Corunna.

During the retreat to Corunna the engineers' tasks were twofold:

1. Some were employed in advance of the retreating column, reconnoitring the roads, repairing bridges and in other ways supervising the safe passage of troops;



2. Others were employed with the rearguard, where they were responsible for the demolition of the many bridges along the route, no easy task as the stone built bridges were not easily broken, nevertheless the French were sufficiently delayed by these actions. Davy was killed whilst destroying a bridge at Betanzos and Burgoyne reported that he saw Napoleon with a group of French officers who were watching him prepare a bridge at Esla for demolition.

Moore's starving and demoralised force arrived at Corunna on 16 January 1809 to an empty harbour. Fortunately the Royal Navy arrived shortly and 19,000 of Moore's army sailed for home. At Corunna the engineers did what they could to reinforce the defences and, more importantly they blew up the remaining stocks of powder in the main magazine. This consisted of some 4,000 standard 100lb barrels of powder which was detonated by laying a powder trail to the main store. Not for the last time was the power of an explosion underestimated and some of the working party were vapourised. The explosion gave rise to 'a mile high cloud'. In its day it was reputed to be the largest man-made explosion in the Western world.

Agustus Schaumann, Deputy-Assistant Commissary General, noted in his journal:

‘I was sitting in my office attending to some orders… when suddenly two such fierce flashes of lightning and claps of thunder burst over the town that my windows flew into our faces in a thousand pieces, the doors sprang open and the slates rolled from the roof, while I, who had just been rocking myself in my chair and talking, was flung backwards by the gust of hot air that poured in at the window. … The column of smoke that rose from the ignited powder was therefore magnificent. It rose up to the heavens like a rock of black marble as big as that of Teneriffe, and did not move, its edges, like white basalt, where dazzlingly illuminated by the sun.’

Despite their shattered state the army fought off the French and managed a counter attack. With victory in sight Moore was struck by a round and was mortally wounded. He was buried where he lay and remains nearby to this day. Moore a great tactician and trainer, father of the Light Division, conducted probably the most arduous and hard fought retreats of the British army of the period.

Defence of Portugal - 1809

The Spanish army suffered various defeats in the early part of the year and the French under Soult occupied much of the northern half of Portugal. Wellesley, appointed to command the British army, landed at Lisbon in April 1809 with the following Engineers; Lieutenant Colonel R Fletcher (Commanding Engineer), Second Captain JF Burgoyne, Lieutenants G Hamilton, C Boothby and E Mulcaster, they were soon joined by Captains SR Chapman and H Goldfinch, Lieutenant Rice Jones, and Second Lieutenants A Emmett, A Thomson, W Foster, E Fyers and RZ Mudge.

Wellesley rapidly reorganised his army into self contained ‘Divisions’ into which Wellesley placed Portuguese troops alongside the British and within just two weeks it was ready to campaign. He also made improvements to the administration of his forces. General Mackenzie was left to hold Lisbon and General Beresford was sent north east to Amarante to threaten Soult’s line of retreat. Wellesley and his army marched north, taking advantage of his sea-power, to outflank the French and so quickly forced them back onto the river Duoro and the town of Oporto on its north bank. The Engineers gathered together boats to enable an assault crossing of the river, which was launched using four wine barges that had been overlooked by the French. The French were taken by surprise. A further crossing upstream and Beresford’s blocking position forced the French to abandon their transport and retreat north across the mountains into Spain. In the various skirmishes that ensued during the crossing Lieutenant Hamilton RE was shot in both thighs whilst charging French Dragoon troopers.

Wellesley then marched his army south east to Plasencia in western Spain. Here he met with the Spanish General Cuesta. They made plans to advance against the French defending the line of the river Alberche to the east of Talavera. This necessitated crossing the river Tietar near Baragona. Wellington ordered Captain Tod, Royal Staff Corps to construct a bridge there. He chose the site the French had used for their pontoon bridge which they had burnt after they had used it. In the absence of other materials a large local hostelry and its outhouses were dismantled of all their available timber. The timber was used to create a raft that was anchored in the centre of the river. Some local pine trees were then used to bridge the two gaps, doors and other timber from a close by inn were used to floor the bridge. The army crossed on 18 July 1809 after which it was dismantled.

As planned the British took their in positions before Talavera but the Spanish did not appear for the proposed attack on the French. Cuesta later claimed that his men were too tired to fight that day. However the French did withdraw and Cuesta, against Wellesley's advice followed up. Wellesley declined to join this pursuit as his troops were desperately short of supplies. The French turned on the Spanish at Albacon and they retreated in some disarray back to the river Alberche.

Battle of Talavera (July 1809) - Meanwhile Wellesley established a line whose southern flank was anchored on the town of Talavera and the river Tagus, the main position being about a feature called the Cerro de Medellin. The French advanced towards this line, Spanish forces held its southern end and the British were on the Medellin. Just prior to this was one of those small incidents that might just have altered the entire future the Peninsular War and maybe of Europe. Wellesley was forward of the line at an outpost called Casa de Salinas when it was attacked by French cavalry. He just managed to mount up and escape under fire. His habit of wearing a plain blue coat rather than the uniform of the day probably resulted in the French soldiers not regarding him as being anyone of importance.

French cavalry appeared opposite the Spanish around Talavera later in the day. The Spanish loosed off one volley and the majority then ran off to the west pausing only to loot Wellesley's baggage train as they went. Suffice it to say that Wellesley was not pleased and never really trusted Spanish troops again. The French attack was launched initially against the Medellin early on the morning of 28 July. By late afternoon after very heavy fighting punctuated by truces when the wounded were recovered [a quite usual practice at this time] both sides were exhausted. The French broke first being forced back and by the next morning they had all gone. The British lost 25% and Wellesley himself was struck by a spent bullet consequently suffering a minor injury. During the battle Lieutenant Boothby RE lost a leg. In victory Sir Arthur was feted by the allies being created Baron Douro of Wellesley and Viscount Wellington of Talavera. The British withdrew to Oroposa. Later under threat from a force under the command of Soult advancing from Salamanca they withdrew into the fortress town of Badajoz near the Spanish/Portuguese border. Finally the army retired back into winter quarters in Portugal in December.

Lines of Torres Vedras (1809 - 1810) - Wellington, looking to the future, had earlier returned to Lisbon with amongst others Lieutenant Colonel Fletcher. Fletcher was instructed to create with the utmost secrecy two defensive lines of some 50 miles in length north of Lisbon from the river Tagus across the countryside to the Atlantic coast. This was one of the most significant military engineering project of the period consisting of mutually supporting redoubts and earthworks along lines chosen for their advantage to the defender.

In this project Lieutenant Colonel Fletcher RE was assisted by Captains Chapman and Goldfinch, until 6 July 1810, when all three and Captain Squire were recalled to the headquarters, and Captain John T Jones RE took charge.

The construction was supervised by Royal Engineers (at any one time there was only 11 officers employed in the works), they had attached to them two Hanoverians and four Portuguese officers as Assistant Engineers, eighteen Royal Military Artificers, 150 soldiers of line and 4-5000 local labours. The total cost of the Lines, including those of Almada (thrown up between Almada and Trafaria in December 1810), reached close upon £100,000.

Work began in October 1809 and was completed within twelve months. In the original plan the Second Line was to be the main defensive line with the First Line as a delaying obstacle. The redoubts were individually designed to suit the ground upon which they stood. They varied in capacity from up to thirty guns with 1,500 men to three guns and 200 men. Lateral roads were constructed to enable the field army to fall upon any French forces that penetrated the lines. A series of seven signal stations manned by the Royal Navy were placed along the line. Messages could be passed from end to end in a few minutes. A final fall back position from which an evacuation could take place was constructed around St Julien which lies on the western side of the Tagus' estuary. This fort remains in use by military forces to this day.

Lines of Torres Vedras
(Illustration from Landmann's Adventures and Reflections RE Library)

The two most significant fortifications where the redoubts at Sobral de Monte Agraco and Fort Sao Vicente above Torres Vedras. The Great Redoubt and its associated forts were held by 2,000 men and mounted 44 guns. It has an all weather approach road of roughly dressed stone which remains in good condition to this day (Photo 2 - below). Although in a poor state the outline of the redoubt can still be seen and some of the works have recently been uncovered (Photo 3 - below). This was the only position against which a serious reconnaissance in force was made with the French having about 120 casualties and the allies 67. Reporting to Lt Col Fletcher in August 1810 Capt J T Jones advises that he has ‘directed Capt Williams to confine his exertions at Monte Agraca solely to making the work defensible, such as clearing out the ditches, filling up the openings through the counterscarp, &c. The rains last week did much damage to the works, and we have parties everywhere employed to put them into order.’

Photo 2 - The original all weather track to the Great Redoubt at Sobral (Photo: MW Stoneham)

Photo 3 - Recent excavation at the Great Redoubt at Sobral (Photo: MW Stoneham)

Fort Sao Vicente consists of 3 linked redoubts on the heights above Torres Vedras. They have a perimeter of about 1,500 metres. The fort had a garrison on about 5,000 men and mounted 40 guns. This fort has been largely reconstructed (Photos 4, 5 & 6 - below) and has within it a small chapel and two windmills. Jones reporting again regarding the removal of cover to give field of fire: ‘We have spared neither house, garden, vineyard, olive trees, woods or private property of any description. The only blind to the fire of the works now standing anywhere is that beautiful avenue of old trees in the pass of Torres Vedras. The Juiz da For a and the inhabitants pleaded with me so hard for the latest moment, lest they be cut down unnecessarily, that I have consented to defer it till the day before the troops march in. As I have trustworthy men with axes in readiness on the spot, there is no doubt of their being felled in time. The pinewoods on the Torres heights are already down and formed into abattis.’ (Abattis consist of whole trees with their foliage removed and the branches being pointed laid down facing the line of attack. They are pegged down and delay the advance of the enemy whilst exposing them to musket fire from the defenders.)

Photo 4 - Fort Sao Vicente on the Lines of Torres Vedras
(Photo: MW Stoneham)

Photo 5 - Fort Sao Vicente (Photo: MW Stoneham)

Photo 6 - Fort Sao Vicente (Photo: MW Stoneham)

Wellington in a despatch to Lord Liverpool dated 21 November 1810 notes ‘…it is but justice to Lt Col Fletcher, and the officers of the Royal Engineers, to draw your Lordship’s attention to the ability and diligence with which they have executed the works by which these positions have been strengthened to such a degree, as to render any attach upon that line occupied by the allied army very doubtful, if not entirely hopeless. … We are indebted for these advantages to Lt Col Fletcher and the officers of the Royal Engineers…’.

Holding Portugal - 1810

Wellington's understandable refusal to engage in any operations that required Spanish co-operation strained the alliance. As a consequence he remained on the defensive for much of the year despite strong criticism from London and Spain. The time was used to consolidate his organisation and train his troops. The 'keys' to Portugal and Spain were their respective border fortresses. The southerly route was guarded by the fortresses of Badajoz in Spain and Elvas in Portugal. This was covered by Portuguese and British troops under Sir Rowland Hill. The central approach down the river Tagus, strategically the least significant, was held by Portuguese troops under Beresford. On the northern route into the country the fortress Almeida lay on the Portuguese side with Fort Concepcion just across the border and the major fortress and town of Ciudad Rodrigo a little further into Spain. Wellington took command of this sector screened by the Light Division under Crauford who were based at Fort Concepcion. This was a compact classic star shaped fortress.

Wellington who always considered that 'time spent on reconnaissance was time well spent' felt that the French were most likely to advance on this front. He, therefore, looked to his rear and chose a long ridge near Busaco as his fall back position in this event. This was reconnoitred and Wellington instructed that a lateral road be constructed along its reverse slope. He also continued to build up the Portuguese army. The Engineers involved were Captains Burgoyne, Goldfinch, Rice Jones and Chapman. In addition to organising the construction of the road up the rear slope the Engineers were, in 28 July 1810, given orders to train 200 men of different regiments in the art of sapping and other rough field-work operations.

Napoleon sent Marshal Massena to the Peninsula to 'drive the British leopards into the sea'. Massena accompanied by his mistress laid siege to Ciudad Rodrigo. Although resolutely held by the Spanish from its investment in May it eventually surrendered on 10 July. Massena moved on towards Fort Concepcion, which Wellington ordered Captain Burgoyne RE to destroy, of this action he recorded:

Immediately it was ascertained that the French were in sufficient force to push our people back, the mines were lighted in the fort. Captain Mulcaster, of the Engineers, went up to warn me to light them, but it was already done. The dragoons I sent down to give every one they met notice neglected to tell him, and he was going up the ramparts to look for me when, smelling powder strong, he looked into one of the passages, and saw the portfire burning. Of course made off as fast as he could…

By 21 July 1810 the destruction was so complete that Fort Concepcion was never rebuilt (Photo 7 - left) . At the end of July 1810 the French crossed the border and invested the fortress of Almeida putting it under artillery fire. Unfortunately on 26 August a trail of gunpowder from a leaking barrel carried from the magazine was lit by a French shell. The central fortress was destroyed and some 500 of the defenders were killed. Two days later the commander surrendered.

Things were not going well for the allies but their fortunates were to change because Massena decided to take the route into Portugal that Wellington had hoped he would. Wellington with some 52,000 troops on the ridge at Busaco was subject to a series of head on attacks by the 65,000 strong French army on 27 September 1810. They were defeated and Massena moved to outflank Wellington, which he succeeded in doing. Wellington withdrew and in so doing implemented his long term strategy to retire to and behind the Lines of Torres Vedras. The British fought a series of rearguard actions and implemented a scorched earth policy as they did so. Massena thought he had the British beaten and was completely astounded when on 10 October 1810 he reached the Lines of Torres Vedras of which he was totally unaware. The French stayed a month before they retired to Santarem where they eked out an existence from the land throughout the winter 1810-11 whilst subject to the depredations of the Portuguese guerrillas.

Consolidation - 1811

Siege of Cadiz (1811-12) - The British were besieged in the port of Cadiz with a force under the command of Maj Gen Sir Thomas Graham. The force was accompanied by the Engineers: Captains C Lefebure (Commanding Engineer), JF Birch, G Landmann; Second Captain W Nicholas; and Lieutenants JN Wells, TH Pitts, T Roberts, J Longley, HD Jones; and Second Lieutenant WR Ord. They were assisted by about 50 Royal Military Articifers. A substantial amount of work was done by the Engineers to create a line of defensive positions along a stream called the San Pedro and also on the northern side of the harbour. The British occupied Fort Matagorda, on the tongue of land forming the eastern side of the outer port. The position was attacked by Marshal Soult's French forces and very close to the end of its defence, in April 1810, Major Lefebure was killed. Burgoyne noted in his journal that:

Poor Lefebure was the last man in Fort Matagorda, and was in the act of preparing the mine to blow up what remained of it, when a cannon shot struck his chest.

Captain Birch resumed command of the Engineers but on 15 June Burgoyne recorded that:

Birch lies very ill of the Walcheren fever at Cadiz. Landmann is also laid up there. Nicholas is consequently the senior Engineer there officiating… The Engineers are employed in forming a chain of redoubts to cover La Isla.

In January 1811 Marshal Victor was ordered to send about a third of his 25,000 troops north to reinforce Marshal Soult's assault on Badajoz. A British force of 5,000 was sent from Cadiz to join up with 8,000 Spanish troops near Tarifa. Eventually landing at Algeciras the allies met at Tarifa as planned where the Spanish General Manuela La Pena (known to his men as 'Madam Manuela') took command.

Map of the Siege of Cadiz 1811
(Source: History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol 1)

The overall plan was to attempt to lift the siege on Cadiz by attacking the much reduced French force from the rear whilst at the same time a sortie would be made from Cadiz. Due to delays and communication problems this attempt at a co-ordinated attack failed. This left the joint Anglo-Spanish force coming down from a ridge near Barrosa under threat from the 9,000 strong French army. The French on the ridge attacked the British whose situation now seemed hopeless. Graham decided the only option was to attack and the British threw themselves up the hill. They included Sub-Lieutenant Davie and a company of Royal Military Artificers, under the command of Captain Birch RE. During the course of the defence Sergeant Cameron, Royal Military Artificers led a section of seven men in a charge on the French, however, the blue uniforms of the Artificers were conspicuous amongst the red coats, they soon lost three of their number and Graham ordered the instant withdrawal of the party, observing that he might want them for other work. A desperate hand-to-hand fight ensued with the British wholly unsupported by their Spanish allies overcoming the French with the 87th Regiment taking a French Eagle in the process. The beaten French retreated and Graham's force marched into Cadiz whereupon he was berated by La Pena for having withdrawn without orders and so losing the battle! Cadiz remained blockaded to July 1812. Captain Pitt RE gossiping in a letter home said that:

The island [Isla de Leon, Cadiz] gets rather a bore, although I had rather be here at present than in Portugal… Birch, you will see, is made a Major, which is something though a Lieutenant-Colonecy would not half have half rewarded his service.

Bridging in the wake of the French withdrawal from Portugal (March 1811) - Massena's demoralised and starving army withdrew from Portugal in March. During the allies' pursuit of the French out of Portugal the Royal Staff Corps were kept busy repairing the bridges that the fleeing French destroyed in their wake. The first bridge to be repaired by the Royal Staff Corps was the bridge across the Alva at Ponte de Murcella. The river at that point was too deep to fix anything to the river bed, so a large pontoon was constructed and the flow of the river was used to swing it out to mid-stream where it was anchored. A bearer was then laid from the near bank onto the pontoon to which it was spiked so that it could be swivelled. The end at the home bank was then fixed to a large barrel to provide flotation. The bearer was then rotated about the spike upstream and then down stream so that it could be secured on the far bank. After it had been made secure on both banks other bearers were placed and the deck was bridged out with doors, chests and other handy timber.

The French had also destroyed the bridges across the Coa at Almeida and Pinhel. Wellington ordered these to be repaired to safeguard his lines of retreat. At Almeida, as was the case in other places, there was no timber available that would bridge the entire gap in one piece. Therefore the abutments of the original masonry bridge were notched and two timber frames were made. These were fixed into the notches on each side and lowered across the gap and then bolted together where they crossed one another. A ridge pole was then laid across the resultant resting point and bearers laid onto this. The deck was then bridged over.

The situation at Pinhel was more difficult as the engineers could not initially get across the gap. To solve the problem two trees were cantilevered over the gap and engineers were able to climb to their ends and then pass a lighter spar to the far bank. Once they were across river they arranged for further trees to be secured in a similar fashion before the bridge proper could be constructed. A second bridge was also constructed in a similar way.

The French left the bridge at Sabugal in place and it was used by Wellington's army as he pushed Massena back to Ciudad Rodrigo and then onto Salamanca. The French lost some 25,000 men in this campaign and, once driven out of Almeida, they were never to return to Portugal. In the south Soult had driven the Spanish out of Badajoz.

Wellington established his headquarters at the village of Frenada and his army of 38,000 were billeted in the surrounding area. From here he was in a position to attack Ciudad Rodrigo.

Beresford was in command of the army in the south with instructions to besiege Badajoz although with the limited resources at his disposal he was unlikely to take it. Wellington, when visiting him on 16 April, took the view that if the French under Soult were to advance on Badajoz the village of Albuera was a good defensive position. Wellington returned north on 28 April to the news that Massena's army now 48,000 strong was on the move to relieve Almeida. Astride the road into Portugal from Ciudad Rodrigo lay the village of Fuentes de Onoro which Wellington considered a good position if Massena again obliged with a frontal assault which he duly did on 3 May. There was a pause on 4 May and Massena then launched a flanking attack the next day. This was almost successful but the Light Division supported by a small force of cavalry and field artillery held off the French in a classic fighting withdrawal. The French retired to Ciudad Rodrigo but this victory was tarnished by the escape of the French defenders who were under siege at the fortress of Almeida.

Only a few days later Beresford found himself facing Soult's army at Albuera south of Badajoz. Soult's army fell on the Spanish on the allied right wing. The battle became a slogging match and the day was saved by Sir Lowry Cole who, on his own initiative, led the Fourth Division in a counter-attack. The French withdrew and Beresford, soon to be replaced by Sir Rowland Hill, re-invested Badajoz. Soult and Marmont joined forces and advanced on Badajoz so the British, now under Wellington, withdrew to the west of the Guadiana river and then into Portugal. Wellington returned north again and invested Ciudad Rodrigo. When, on 20 September, he came under threat from the French he withdrew into Portugal and thus ended the fighting for 1811.

Defence of Tarifa (December 1811) - In southern Spain Cadiz and the small port of Tarifa were still invested by the French. Tarifa, lying between Cadiz and Gibraltar, was occupied by a small joint force of British, Portuguese and Spanish troops under the command of Colonel Skerrett. A body of troops from Gibraltar were commanded by Major King and the Royal Engineers included Captains CF Smith, H Vavasour (who played a signal role in the defence of the town), Lieutenants Longley, Burney and J Birch.

Its defences consisted of a slender wall with no ditch and it was bisected by the bed of a torrent running east to west and did not appear to be defensible. To the east lay higher ground which gave any attacker a commanding position. Captain Smith RE supported by Major King took the view that if an attack was launched from the east there was every prospect of a successful if difficult defence. The French obliged and on 29 December 1811 having breached the wall found themselves in the bed of the torrent facing a series of retrenchments that the British had thrown up in anticipation.

Skerrett was disposed to abandon the defence and withdraw in the fleet of transports offshore. Major King would have none of this and after communicating with General Campbell in Gibraltar Skerrett was ordered to continue the defence and the transports were withdrawn. Thanks to Smith's preparations which included fortifying and providing loopholes in the town houses and despite a great rush of storm water through the torrent the defences held. The hard fighting little dampened by the severe weather resulted in the French breaking camp and withdrawing on 4 January 1812. Sir William Napier in his book War in the Peninsula says in respect of the defence of Tarifa

the merit chiefly appertains to Sir Charles Smith, the Captain of Engineers. That officer's vigour and capacity overmatched the enemy's strength without, and the weakness and cajolement of those who did not wish to defend it within. …To the British Engineer, therefore, belongs the praise of this splendid action.

Back in the north Major Henry Sturgeon, Royal Staff Corps was instructed to bridge the Agueda in anticipation of the forthcoming attack on Ciudad Rodrigo, the only permanent crossing in the vicinity being the Roman built bridge at Ciudad Rodrigo itself which was under the walls of the town. The 396 foot wide ford at Marialva was the chosen crossing point. The river was considered unsuitable for pontoons so a trestle bridge was built. The trestles weighted in their bases by stones were secured in place by chains attached to adjacent piles driven into the river bed. In all 30 trestles were made and 30 piles were driven into the river bed. Other materials included 500 planks of 14 foot length, 160 beams 18 feet long and 180 fathoms of chain. The bridge was dismantled after the successful conclusion of the siege at Ciudad Rodrigo and stored at Almeida.

Advance into Spain - 1812

Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo (January 1812) - Wellington invested Ciudad Rodrigo on 8 January with Lt Col Fletcher as Commanding Engineer. His contingent included 18 Royal Engineers, about the same number of Royal Military Articifers supported by 180 men of the 3rd Division who had received some training in siege works together with 20 miners and 80 carpenters drawn from various Divisions. Twelve Line officers acted as Assistant Engineers. This pattern was to be repeated in subsequent sieges and major engineering works until the first contingent of the Royal Sappers and Miners arrived in 1813.

Map of the Siege of Ciudad Rodrigo 1812 - 4 batteries were located on the forward edge of the Upper Teson, while a fifth battery was established closer to the fortress on the spar called Lower Tenson.
(Source: History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol 1)

Captain Burgoyne RE described the engineer preparations for the investment of Ciudad Rodrigo in his journal:

18th December 1811 …By the general orders of this day the regiments of the 1st, 3rd, 4th, Light Divisions, and General Packs's Portuguese Brigade, are ordered to make fascines, gabions, and pickets of prescribed dimensions at the cantonments of the several regiments…The distance of Ciudad Rodrigo is… five leagues [away].

30th December 1811 …I am cutting planks for platforms at Puebla d'Azava. The number of gabions proposed to be made in the first instance was 2,500 fascines, and 10,000 pickets…

2nd January 1812 …A fall of snow. All the cars that can be collected in the cantonments of the 3rd Division are ordered to be assembled at Gallegos and Las Agallas on the 5th inst, and reported to the officer of Engineers there. They go loaded with fascines and other siege stores…

5th January 1812 … The cars conveying gabions, fascines etc. to Las Agallas from Lagiosa and Navas Frias cannot proceed from the badness of the roads, and were left in the road…

Photo 9 - Ciudad Rodrigo from Upper Teson -The black arrow indicates the approximate position of the greater breach in the wall of the town
(Photo: MW Stoneham)

On the afternoon of the 19th January 1812 Wellington viewed the breaches on Ciudad Rodrigo with Fletcher who announced them 'practicable'. That night they were stormed with assault columns being launched from the two convents as well. The attack was begun a few minutes before 7 pm by a column composed of the 5th and 94th Regiments, guided by Major Henry , Royal Staff Corps and accompanied by a party of artificiers with axes and scaling ladders. From the left of the second parallel a party of 150 artificiers, led by Captain Macleod RE and Lieutenant Thomson RE, advanced carrying bags of hay, which were used as fascines. After heavy fighting the town and fortress were taken. Amongst the 500 casualties was General Crauford who died of wounds received whilst leading his men into the breach. 'Black Bob' was the outstanding commander of the Light Division. Lieutenant Thomson RE was severely wounded, but no other casualties occurred amongst the Engineers. After the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo the Engineers promptly put in hand repairs to the walls to guard against any future counter-attack.

In Wellington's despatch announcing the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo he wrote:

I likewise request your Lordship's attention to the conduct of Lieut.-Col. Fletcher, the Chief Engineer, and of Brigade Major Jones and the officers and men of the Royal Engineers. The ability with which these operations were carried on exceeds all praise.

Sieges of Badajoz (1811-12) - After the fall of Ciudad Rodrigo Wellington moved much of his force south to invest Badajoz, but it was to take three attempts before it was to finally fall.

Lieutenant Colonel Fletcher was again in command of the Engineers with some 22 colleagues supported by 115 Articifers and other men.

Badajoz castle with its high commanding position and the fortified town lie at the confluence of a major river the Guadiana and its smaller tributary the Rivillas were a much more challenging proposition, indeed two previous attempts to take it had been unsuccessful frustrated in part by French advances. The high ground to the west of the Guadiana was guarded by Fort Christoval which overlooks the castle. The roman bridge across the Guadiana into the town was also well defended. There were two further major outworks, Fort Pardaleras to the south and Fort Picurina to the east with San Roque guarding the nearby crossing point of the Rivillas. A pontoon bridge was thrown across the river some 10 miles downstream from Badajoz. The use of this was disrupted by a rise in the river following a storm on 22 March but it was quickly back in service with traffic in the meantime being sustained by a flying bridge. The French also threw tree trunks and beams of wood into the river in an attempt to destroy the bridge.

Siege map of Badajoz 1811-12 showing the British lines of all three sieges
(Red - 1^st and 2^nd siege lines. Mauve - 2^nd siege lines. Green - 3^rd siege lines
(Source: History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol 1)

After a set back following a French attack on the besiegers when Fletcher's life was saved by a silver dollar in his pocket which deflected the shot Fort Picurina was taken on 24 March. From here the attackers were able to fire on the town walls and establish three breaches. Progress was slow but on 6 April, in the light of a French threat to Ciudad Rodrigo the town was assaulted by way of the breaches where there was a huge loss of life. The simultaneous storming of the Castle by a force under Picton eventually carried the day although it was a close run thing. The French withdrew to Fort Christoval and then surrendered. There were almost 5,000 casualties and the British troops rampaged through the town for several days bringing shame on themselves and their country.

Photo 10 - View of Badajoz from Fort Christoval - The black arrow indicates the approximate position of Fort Picurina. In the foreground of the picture is the river Guadiana and just beyond it can be seen the river Rivillas
(Photo: MW Stoneham)

On a more positive note the real need for a better trained body of Sappers was reinforced by Wellington. Writing to Lord Liverpool from his HQ at Frenada on 11 February 1812 he states

…I would beg to suggest to your Lordship the expediency of adding to the Engineer establishment a corps of sappers and miners. It is inconceivable with what disadvantage we undertake anything like a siege for want of assistance of this description. …we are obliged to depend for assistance upon the regiments of the line; and although the men are brave and willing, they want the knowledge and training that are necessary.

The Royal Engineers Establishment (now Royal School of Military Engineering) at Chatham under the direction of Major Charles Pasley in October 1812 was the outcome.

Wellington now held the 'keys of Spain' and proceeded to exploit his advantage to the full. His first action was to ensure that the two French armies (Marmont's army of Portugal north of the Tagus and Soult's army south of the Tagus) could not easily combine, he felt he could beat either army separately but not both together. The Tagus effectively divided Spain flowing as it did from east to west and only the bridge of boats at Almarez was available to the French to move quickly from north to south or vice versa.

In order to maintain his own north to south lines of communication Wellington instructed Lieutentant Colonel Henry Sturgeon, Royal Staff Corps to repair the bridge at Alcantra. This was an old Roman bridge known as the Trajan bridge. It was 626 feet long, 26 feet wide and 190 feet above the water. The Tagus here was in a deep gorge and the river could rise up to 180 feet in the rainy season. It had 6 arches, the second span of 75 feet had been blown up. A pontoon bridge was not the answer and the scarcity of large trees in the area made bridging an impossibility. Sturgeon decided a suspension bridge (the first to be built in Europe) was the solution.

It consisted of a pre-fabricated net some 90 feet long by 20 feet wide each end being fixed onto 30 foot long beams. 18 lengths of 6 inch rope one foot apart were fixed to the end beams. The ropes were lashed to create a gigantic net. Eight equally spaced 20 foots beams were then lashed into the net. Further timber was then used to create the decking. This whole structure was made in Elvas, it was rolled into a bundle and placed on two pontoon carriages and taken to Alcantra. Here preparatory work had been carried out under the direction of Lieutentant Perry, Royal Staff Corps. Two large ropes had been got across the gap and these were used to haul the bridge across the gap. Rope braces were taken from the bridge and secured onto the piers and the four foot high railings were covered with tarpaulin to block the vision of horses and oxen to prevent possible panic. One contemporary account stated that the bridge 'swayed so horribly, and bullocks often took fright and came to grief. Horses hated it…' and no doubt some of the men as well. Capstans could be used to tighten up the ropes for heavy loads and, if necessary, to withdraw the bridge from one side or the other if needed. This amazing piece of improvised bridging was designed and built in about three weeks when it was almost immediately used by Wellington's entire army as it marched north, it remained in place until 1860. Sturgeon designed and built a similar structure in 1812 for the King Charles Bridge at Almaraz. This had a span of 143 Feet.

Wellington moved north with 48,000 troops to Salamanca which he liberated on 17 June. Hill was left in command of 18,000 in the south with one of his first tasks being to destroy the French bridge of boats at Almarez, this being the only remaining bridge across the Tagus available to the enemy. Hill's force made a successful attack on 23 May and Lieutenant Wright, RE oversaw the destruction of the redoubts, the bridge and stores.

Marshal Marmont in command of the 40,000 strong French army was nearby. On 22 July the two armies were marching south on a parallel courses about a mile apart near the village of Los Arapiles. This lies some 5 miles south of Salamanca. In the late morning Marmont who could see very little of the British forces was watching progress from the summit of the Greater Arapile. Wellington who was on a ridge just to the north east of Los Arapiles had a clear view of the whole French army. Marmont, thinking that Wellington had stopped ordered the leading French division under Thomiere try to get ahead of him. This opened up a gap in the French line which was now extended over some 4 miles. Wellington galloped some 3 miles west and ordered his brother-in-law Major General Edward Pakenham to attack Thomiere's division. Wellington returned at the gallop to Los Arapiles and sent Leith to attack the French centre with the Portuguese Brigade and British cavalry in support. The French suffered a major blow at this point when Marmont was badly wounded by a shell. With the whole of his army now under attack from the combined British and Portuguese the French fought bravely but were defeated suffering some 15,000 casualties and losing 2 Eagles and 3 Colours. The French retreated to the east and should have been blocked at the bridge at Alba. Regrettably the Spanish force had withdrawn leaving the French to escape across the Tormes.

Siege of Burgos (September 1812) - The French retired to Burgos and the British went on to liberate Madrid on 12 August. Wellington moved on and invested Burgos on 19 September.

Afterwards Burgoyne reflected on the failure and put it down to a shortage of trained Engineers, which was exacerbated by the high casualty rate among the Royal Engineers and Assistant Engineers. He also observed that the Royal Military Artificers

These shortcomings would be addressed by training given at the Royal Engineers Establishment as noted above.

After some five weeks and now under threat from the French forces Wellington withdrew falling back via Madrid to Ciudad Rodrigo on 20 November. Here Wellington planned his 1813 campaign.

Out of Spain and into France - 1813-14

Having made various command changes and received new drafts of men from Britain Wellington had a force of 81,000 in the Peninsular Army with a further 25,000 Spanish under command. The British force included 4 companies of the Corps of Royal Sappers and Miners, with stores including entrenching tools, under the command of the recently knighted Sir Richard Fletcher. The army advanced into Spain in mid May their route necessitating the provision of a pontoon bridge across the Esla. This was a difficult operation owing to the steepness of the river banks.

The French mustered some 200,000, mostly in northern Spain under the command of King Joseph. Wellington moved east re-taking Salamanca and Zamorra. He bypassed Burgos and since this left the French right flank exposed they blew up Burgos castle on 13 June and withdrew to the Ebro. Again outflanked by British moves to his north Joseph withdrew to Vittoria. On 21 June Wellington attacked from four different directions with an army of 79,000 against a 66,000 strong French force which was out manoeuvred and crushed. They lost 151 guns (out of 153) and a huge baggage train of loot. The French were, effectively, defeated and Wellington was promoted Field Marshal.

Siege of San Sebastian (1813) - Wellington continued to push east to the Pyrenees where he halted. He invested San Sebastian (now Donostia) on the north coast of Spain with every expectation that the French would try to relieve the city. Pamplona was invested at much the same time. The French kept up the pressure attacking from France via the passes of Maya and Roncesvalles. The French were checked at Sorauren about 5 miles north of Pamplona. Wellington joined Lowry Cole here and took over command. Soult now low on supplies attacked, was held and then counter-attacked by the British who drove them back to the Pyrenees.

Fletcher was summoned to San Sebastian and left Major Goldfinch RE in charge of the construction of redoubts at Pamplona. His assistant Capt Pitts wrote shortly before his death before Hastingues whilst on reconnaissance that 'Pasley's sappers are most valuable and generally extremely zealous'. Pamplona capitulated on 31 October with its garrison virtually starved.

San Sebastian was situated on peninsula on the river Urumea with the fortified town lying on its neck and the castle of La Mota on higher ground to its north. Access to the peninsula was blocked by a hornwork [fortification] with the fortified convent of San Bartolemeo lying further south beyond the suburb of San Martino. On the east side of the estuary lay the Chofre sand hills which overlooked the fortress of San Sebastian.

Fletcher had the support of Lieutenant Colonel Burgoyne, Majors Ellicombe and CF Smith; Captains Henderson, Rhodes, GC Lewis, Boteler, and Collyer; Lieutenants Stanway, HD Jones, Marshall, Barry, Tapp, Reid, Matson, Machel and Wortham. With them were 3 companies [later 4 companies] of Sappers & Miners with some carpenters drawn from troops of the line.

The plan was to attack up the peninsula with batteries of artillery placed on the Chofre hills to bombard the hornwork and then the walls of San Sebastian. The convent reduced to ruins by artillery fire was taken 17th July. The suburb of San Martino was left burnt and abandoned by its occupiers. A parallel was constructed through the suburb. Burgoyne noted in his journal:

Lieutenant Reid, observing the drain of the aqueduct, where it was cut through in our parallel to be large enough to get into, explored it; and with much difficulty and perseverance went completely through [240 yards] to where it ended in a fastened door in the counterscarp, opposite the face of the right demi-bastion of the hornwork.

A mine was laid at the foot of the wall here and the breach thus created and those resulting from the bombardment from the Chofre hills were assaulted. Regrettably this assault failed with considerable losses. The British consolidated their position as the arrival of more ammunition was awaited. With the ammunition came additional siege guns and a fourth company of Sappers & Miners fresh from their training at Chatham. The bombardment re-commenced and an attack was also launched on the island of Santa Clara which lay to the west of the peninsula, the intention being to enfilade the Castle. The island was easily taken, subsequently it became necessary to communicate immediately with the Engineer in charge on the island. Using a boat in daylight was not feasible so Corporal Thomas Evans of the Sappers & Miners swam the mile to island under heavy fire from the French. He later returned uninjured with the reply - a most gallant feat.

Siege of San Sebastian 1813
The red indicates the British lines.
(Source: History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vol 1)

Charges were laid to breach the sea wall to facilitate the assault. On 31 August with the hornwork walls substantially destroyed by the artillery and the sea wall breached an assault was launched. The attackers found that the French had built further defences inside the walls and the attack got bogged down. Eventually it was renewed with artillery from the Chofre hills firing over the heads of the assailants. The defenders were driven back but their ready to use ammunition, fire barrels and other combustible material exploded. This created some confusion but the stormers re-grouped and took the hornwork and got into the town. The remaining members of the garrison retreated into the castle. Regrettably Sir Richard Fletcher leading a party storming the hornwork and 3 other Engineers were killed as were 16 Sappers. Burgoyne was amongst the many injured. Throughout the seige the castle was continuously and heavily bombarded until it surrendered without the need for a assault on 8 September 1813.

Entering France - On 31 August 1813 the French launched an assault across the Bidassoa with additional attacks further south. These attacks were all repulsed and on 7 October 1813 Wellington crossed the Bidassoa onto French soil. The British were firmly established in France at the year end attacking Bayonne which lies near the mouth of the river Adour in December. Here the French under Soult attempted to repulse Wellington but the British forces under the command of Hill at the time repulsed them on 13 December 1813.

In the meantime on 27 February 1814 the French were defeated at Orthez prompting Soult to retreat to Tolouse where he was attacked by the British. Wellington made a triumphal entry into the city on 12 April and five days later, on 17 April 1814, Marshal Soult finally surrendered to Wellington. After six years of war the Peninsular Army was demobilised; some troops were sent to Canada to fight the Americans, whilst other Regiments returned to Britain where many of them were disbanded.

Wellington: The years of the sword; Elizabeth Longford; Book Club Assoc; 1969.

The Life of Sir John Moore; Roger Day; Pen & Sword; 2001.

Wellington's Peninsular Army; Julian Paget; Pen & Sword; 1990.

History of the Corps of Royal Engineers Vols. I & II; Maj Gen W Porter; 1977 [Reprint].

Inside Wellington's Peninsular Army 1808-1814; Rory Muir and others; Pen & Sword; 2006.

The Lines of Torres Vedras; John Grehan; Spelmount; 2004.

Follow the Sapper G Napier; Institution of Royal Engineers, Chatham, 2005

Links to further reading:

Corps History - Engineer Soldiers (1772-1856)

Corps History - Global Wars and a third Corps (1756-1815)

Biography - Sir John Fox Burgyone (1782-1871)

Biography - Lt Col Sir Richard Fletcher (1768-13)

Biography - General Sir Charles Pasley (1780-1861)